John  Swett 


THE 


FIRST  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 


DESIGNED  TO  CULTIVATE 


THE  OBSERVING  POWERS  OF  CHILDREN, 


.  .  .  .  Not  that  more  is  taught  at  an  early  age,  but  less ;  that 
time  is  taken;  that  the  wall  is  not  run  up  in  haste;  that  the  bricks 
are  set  on  carefully,  and  the  mortar  allowed  time  to  dry. 

LORD  STANLEY. 

"You  study  Nature  in  the  house,  and  when  you  go  out-of-doors 
you  cannot  find  her." — PEOF.  AGASSIZ. 


BY 

ELIZA  A.   YOUMANS. 


NEW    AND    ENLAKGED    EDITION,    WITH    300    ENGBAVING9. 


NEW    YORK: 

D.    APPLETON    AND     COMPANY, 
549   &  551  BKOADWAY. 

18T3. 


E^TKIIED  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1870,  by 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 

£L>  U  CA  V  *  i/ 


PKEFACE. 


THIS  little  book  has  a  twofold  claim  upon  those 
concerned  in  the  work  of  education. 

In  the  first  place,  it  introduces  the  beginner  to 
the  study  of  Botany  in  the  only  way  it  can  be  prop- 
erly done — by  the  direct  observation  of  vegetable 
forms.  The  pupil  is  told  very  little,  and  from  the 
beginning,  throughout,  he  is  sent  to  the  plant  to  get 
his  knowledge  of  the  plant.  The  book  is  designed 
to  help  him  in  this  work,  never  to  supersede  it.  In- 
stead of  memorizing  the  statements  of  others,  he 
brings  report  of  the  living  reality  as  he  sees  it ; 
it  is  the  things  themselves  that  are  to  be  exam- 
ined, questioned,  and  understood.  The  true  basis 
of  a  knowledge  of  Botany  is  that  familiarity  with 
the  actual  characters  of  plants,  which  can  only  be 
obtained  by  direct  and  habitual  inspection  of  them. 
The  beginner  should  therefore  commence  with  the 
actual  specimens,  and  le,arn  to  distinguish  those  ex- 
ternal characters  which  Le  open  to  observation ;  the 
knowledge  of  which  leads  aaturally  to  that  arrange- 
ment by  related  attributes  which  constitutes  classifi- 
cation. ' 


iv  PREFACE. 

But  the  present  book  has  a  still  stronger  claim  to 
attention  ;  it  develops  a  new  method  of  study  which  is 
designed  to  correct  that  which  is  confessedly  the  deep- 
est defect  of  our  current  education.  This  defect  is  the 
almost  total  lack  of  any  systematic  cultivation  of  the 
observing  powers.  Although  all  real  knowledge 
begins  in  attention  to  things,  and  consists  in  the  dis- 
crimination and  comparison  of  the  likenesses  and  dif- 
ferences among  objects ;  yet,  strange  to  say,  in  our 
vaunted  system  of  instruction  there  is  no  provision 
for  the  regular  training  of  the  perceptive  faculties. 
That  which  should  be  first  and  fundamental  is  hardly 
attended  to  at  all.  "We  train  in  mathematics,  and 
cram  the  contents  of  books,  but  do  little  to  exercise 
the  mind  upon  the  realities  of  Nature,  or  to  make  it 
alert,  sensitive,  and  intelligent,  in  respect  to  the  order 
of  the  surrounding  world. 

Something,  indeed,  has  been  done  in  the  way  of 
object-teaching,  although  but  little  that  is  satisfactory. 
These  exercises  are  notoriously  loose,  desultory,  inco- 
herent, and  superficial,  and  hardly  deserve  the  name 
of  mental  training.  What  is  wanted  is,  that  object- 
studies  shall  become  more  close  and  methodic,  and 
that  the  observations  shall  be  wrought  into  connected 
and  organized  knowledge.  It  is  the  merit  of  Botany 
that,  beyond  all  other  studies,  it  is  suited  to  the 
attainment  of  this  end.  Plants  furnish  abundant 
and  ever-varying  materials  for  observation.  The  ele- 


PREFACE. 


mentary  facts  of  Botany  are  so  simple  that  their 
study  can  be  commenced  in  early  childhood,  and 
so  numerous  as  to  sustain  a  prolonged  course  of 
observation.  From  the  most  rudimentary  facts  the 
pupil  may  proceed  gradually  to  the  more  complex ; 
from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract ;  from  observation 
to  the  truths  resting  upon  observation,  in  a  natural 
order  of  ascent,  as  required  by  the  laws  of  mental 
growth.  The  means  are  thus  furnished  for  organ- 
izing object-teaching  into  a  systematic  method,  so  that 
it  may  be  pursued  continuously  through  a  course  of 
successively  higher  and  more  comprehensive  exercises. 
Carried  out  in  this  way,  Botany  is  capable  of  doing 
for  the  observing  powers  of  the  mind  what  mathe- 
matics does  for  its  reasoning  powers. 

Moreover,  accuracy  of  observation  requires  accu- 
racy of  description ;  precision  of  thought  implies  pre- 
cision in  the  use  of  language.  Here,  again,  Botany 
has  superior  advantages.  Its  vocabulary  is  more 
copious,  precise,  and  well  settled,  than  that  of  any 
other  of  the  natural  sciences ;  it  is  thus  unrivalled  in 
the  scope  it  offers  for  the  cultivation  of  the  descrip- 
tive powers. 

On  purely  mental  grounds,  therefore,  and  as  a 
means  of  attaining  the  most  needed  of  educational 
reforms,  Botany  has  a  claim  to  be  admitted  as  a 
fourth  fundamental  branch  of  common-school  study ; 
and  the  hope  of  contributing  something  to  this  end 


VI  PREFACE. 

has  been  tlie  author's  main  incitement  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  this  rudimentary  work. 

It  is  needful  here  to  state  that  the  method  of  in- 
struction developed  in  these  pages  is  no  mere  educa- 
tional novelty ;  it  has  been  tested,  and  its  fitness  for 
the  end  proposed  has  been  shown  in  practice.  The 
schedule  feature  which  is  here  fully  brought  out,  and 
which  is  its  leading  peculiarity  as  a  mode  of  study, 
was  devised  and  successfully  used  by  Prof.  J.  S. 
Henslow,  of  Cambridge,  England.  My  attention 
was  first  drawn  to  it  as  I  was  looking  about  in  the 
educational  department  of  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  in  London.  In  a  show-case  of  botanical 
specimens,  I  noticed  some  slates  covered  with  child- 
ish handwriting,  which  proved  to  be  illustrations  of 
a  method  of  teaching  Botany  to  the  young.  They 
were  furnished  by  Prof.  Henslow  for  the  Interna- 
tional Exhibition  of  1851.  He  died  without  pub- 
lishing his  method,  but  not  without  having  subjected 
it  to  thorough  practical  trial.  He  had  gathered 
together  a  class  of  poor  country  children,  in  the 
parish  where  he  officiated  as  clergyman,  and  taught 
them  Botany  by  a  plan  similar  to  the  present,  though 
less  simplified.  The  results  of  this  experiment  have 
been  given  to  the  public  by  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker,  Su 
perintendent  of  the  Botanical  Gardens  at  Kew,  who 
was  summoned  to  give  evidence  upon  the  subject 
before  a  Parliamentary  Commission  on  Education. 


PREFACE.  VI 1 

The  following  interesting  passages  from  liis  testi- 
mony will  give  an  idea  of  Prof.  Henslow's  method 
of  proceeding  and  its  results : 

Question.  Have  you  ever  turned  your  attention  at  all  to  the 
possibility  of  teaching  Botany  to  boys  in  classes  at  school  ? 

Answer.  I  have  thought  that  it  might  be  done  very  easily ; 
that  this  deficiency  might  be  easily  remedied. 

Q.  What  are  your  ideas  on  the  subject  ? 

A.  My  own  ideas  are  chiefly  drawn  from  the  experience  of 
my  father-in-law,  the  late  Prof.  Henslow,  Professor  of  Botany 
at  Cambridge.  He  introduced  Botany  into  one  of  the  lowest 
possible  class  of  schools — that  of  village  laborers'  children  in 
a  remote  part  of  Suffolk. 

Q.  Perhaps  you  will  have  the  goodness  to  tell  us  the  sys- 
tem he  pursued  ? 

A.  It  was  an  entirely  voluntary  system.  He  offered  to  en- 
roll the  school  children  in  a  class  to  be  taught  Botany  once  a 
week.  The  number  of  children  in  the  class  was  limited,  I 
think,  to  forty-two.  As  his  parish  contained  only  one  thou- 
sand inhabitants,  there  never  were,  I  suppose,  the  full  forty-two 
children  in  the  class ;  their  ages  varied  from  about  eight  years 
old  to  about  fourteen  or  fifteen.  The  class  mostly  consisted 
of  girls.  ...  He  required  that,  before  they  were  enrolled  in 
the  class,  they  should  be  able  to  spell  a  few  elementary  botani- 
cal terms,  including  some  of  the  most  difficult  to  spell,  and 
those  that  were  the  most  essential  to  begin  with.  Those  who 
brought  proof  that  they  could  do  this  were  put  into  the  third 
class ;  then  they  were  taught  once  a  week,  by  himself  generally, 
for  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half,  sometimes  for  two  hours 
(for  they  were  exceedingly  fond  of  it). 

Q.  Did  he  use  to  take  them  out  in  the  country,  or  was  it 
limply  lessons  in  the  school  ? 

A.  He  left  them  to  collect  for  themselves ;  but  he  visited 
his  parish  daily,  when  the  children  used  to  come  up  to  him, 
and  bring  the  plants  they  had  collected  ;  so  that  the  lessons 
went  on  all  the  week  round.  There  was  only  one  day  in  the 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

week  on  which  definite  instruction  was  given  to  the  class ;  but 
on  Sunday  afternoon  he  used  to  allow  the  senior  class,  and 
those  who  got  marks  at  the  examinations,  to  attend  at  his 
house.  .  .  . 

Q.  Did  he  find  any  difficulty  in  teaching  this  subject  in 
class  ? 

A.  None  whatever ;  less  than  he  would  have  had  in  dealing 
with  almost  any  other  subject. 

Q.  Do  you  know  in  what  way  he  taught  it  ?  did  he  illus- 
trate it  ? 

A.  Invariably ;  he  made  it  practical.  He  made  it  an  ob- 
jective study.  The  children  were  taught  to  know  the  plants, 
and  to  pull  them  to  pieces  ;  to  give  their  proper  names  to  the 
parts ;  to  indicate  the  relations  of  the  parts  to  one  another ; 
and  to  find  out  the  relation  of  one  plant  to  another  by  the 
knowledge  thus  obtained. 

Q.  They  were  children,  you  say,  generally  from  eight  to 
twelve  ? 

A.  Yes,  and  up  to  fourteen. 

Q.  And  they  learned  it  readily  ? 

A.  Readily  and  voluntarily,  entirely. 

Q.  And  were  interested  in  it  ? 

A.  Extremely  interested  in  it.  They  were  exceedingly  fond 
of  it. 

Q.  Do  you  happen  to  know  whether  Prof.  Henslow  thought 
that  the  study  of  Botany  developed  the  faculties  of  the  mind 
—  -that  it  taught  these  children  to  think  ?  and  do  you  know 
whether  he  perceived  any  improvement  in  their  mental  facul- 
ties from  that  ? 

A.  Yes ;  he  used  to  think  it  was  the  most  important  agent 
that  could  be  employed  for  cultivating  their  faculties  of  obser- 
vation, and  for  strengthening  their  reasoning  powers. 

Q.  He  really  thought  that  he  had  arrived  at  a  practical  re- 
mit! 

A.  Undoubtedly;  and  so  did  every  one  who  visited  the 
school  or  the  parish  ? 

Q.  They  were  children  of  quite  the  lower  class  ? 

A.  The  laboring  agricultural  class. 


PREFACE.  IX 

Q.  And  in  other  branches  receiving  the  most  elementary 
Instruction  ? 

A.  Yes. 

Q.  And  Prof.  Henslow  thought  that  their  minds  were  more 
developed ;  that  they  were  become  more  reasoning  beings,  from 
having  this  study  superadded  to  the  others  ? 

A.  Most  decidedly.  It  was  also  the  opinion  of  some  of  the 
inspectors  of  schools,  who  came  to  visit  him,  that  such  chil- 
dren were  in  general  more  intelligent  than  those  of  other 
parishes ;  and  they  attribute  the  difference  to  their  observant 
and  reasoning  faculties  being  thus  developed.  .  .  . 

Q.  So  that  the  intellectual  success  of  this  objective  study 
was  beyond  question  ? 

A.  Beyond  question.  ...  In  conducting  the  examinations 
of  medical  men  for  the  army,  which  I  have  now  conducted  for 
several  years,  and  those  for  the  East-India  Company's  Service, 
which  I  have  conducted  for,  I  think,  seven  years,  the  questions 
which  I  am  in  the  habit  of  putting,  and  which  are  not  an- 
swered by  the  majority  of  the  candidates,  are  what  would  have 
been  answered  by  the  children  in  Prof.  Henslow's  village- 
Bchool.  I  believe  the  chief  reason  .to  be,  that  these  students' 
observing  faculties,  as  children,  had  never  been  trained — such 
faculties  having  lain  dormant  with  those  who  naturally  pos- 
sessed them  in  a  high  degree  ;  and  having  never  been  de- 
veloped, by  training,  in  those  who  possessed  them  in  a  low 
degree.  In  most  medical  schools,  the  whole  sum  and  sub- 
stance of  botanical  science  is  crammed  into  a  few  weeks  of  lec- 
tures, and  the  men  leave  the  class  without  having  acquired  an 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  merest  elements  of  the  science.  .  .  . 

The  printed  form  or  schedule  contrived  by  Prof. 
Henslow,  and  used  in  these  classes,  applied  only  to 
the  flower,  the  most  complex  part  of  the  plant,  and 
the  attention  of  children  was  directed  by  it  chiefly  to 
those  features  upon  which  orders  depend  in  classifica- 
tion. But,  instead  of  confining  its  use  to  the  study 


PREFACE. 


of  a  special  part  of  plant-structure,  it  seemed  to  me 
to  apply  equally  to  the  whole  course  of  descriptive 
Botany,  and  to  be  capable  of  becoming  a  most 
efficient  instrument  of  regular  observational  train- 
ing. I  accordingly  prepared  a  simplified  series  of 
exercises  on  this  plan,  and  used  them  to  guide  some 
little  children  in  studying  the  plants  of  the  neigh- 
borhood; and,  had  this  experiment  not  been  re- 
garded, by  those  who  witnessed  it,  as  a  success,  the 
book  embodying  these  exercises  would  not  now  ap- 
pear. 


The  successful  experience  here  referred  to,  which 
led  to  the  publication  of  this  book,  has  now  been  de- 
cisively confirmed  by  the  public  after  a  year's  trial 
with  it.  It  has  had  an  extensive  sale,  has  been  in- 
troduced into  many  schools  of  all  grades,  has  been 
much  used  by  private  students,  and  has  been  ap- 
proved with  a  unanimity  and  earnestness  quite  un- 
precedented in  the  history  of  school-books  based  upon 
new  methods  of  teaching. 

A  new  edition  now  appears,  with  several  additional 
chapters  treating  of  the  seed,  germination,  buds,  the 
aspects  of  woody  plants,  etc.  The  descriptions  will 
here  be  more  full  and  general,  but  the  plan  of  de- 
scribing only  the  results  of  actual  observations  is  still 
adhered  to.  Questions  are  asked,  but  no  answers  are 


PREFACE.  X 

given ;  these  are  to  be  got  by  direct  inspection  of  the 
objects.  Some  simple  experiments  for  the  children 
to  make  are  introduced,  and  they  will  now  be  more 
occupied  in  watching  the  changes  which  take  place 
in  the  different  parts  of  plants. 

In  arranging  a  course  of  observations  for  begin- 
ners in  Botany,  only  those  have  been  selected  which 
may  be  made  with  the  naked  eye.  In  another  book 
now  in  preparation  the  same  plan  of  schedule  study 
will  be  carried  out,  and  provision  made  for  more 
close  and  extended  observations,  requiring  the  help 
of  magnifying-glasses. 

There  have  been  attempts  to  teach  classes  by  the 
schedule  method  of  this  work  by  means  of  the  black- 
board, and  without  the  book,  but  all  such  attempts 
are  violations  of  the  method.  Botany  cannot  be 
"  taught "  by  this  system,  for  the  very  essence  and 
soul  of  it  is  that  the  pupil  is  himself  to  find  out  what 
he  wants  to  know.  For  repetition,  comparison,  and 
verification,  constant  reference  to  past  exercises  is 
required,  which  makes  it  indispensable  that  plant 
and  book  should  go  together.  Only  as  a  manual  of 
practice,  in  individual  observation,  can  the  present 
work  subserve  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  pre- 
pared. 


PUBLISHEES'  NOTICE. 


The  essay  on  the  EDUCATIONAL  CLAIMS  OF  BOTANY, 
which  was  appended  to  former  editions  of  this  work,  is 
withdrawn  from  the  present  edition.  Believing  it  to  be  a 
very  important  addition  to  our  educational  literature,  and 
that  they  can  in  no  way  better  subserve  the  interests  of 
sound  progressive  education,  the  publishers  have  reprinted 
the  argument  in  a  neat  pamphlet  for  gratuitous  distribu- 
tion. The  object  of  the  essay  is  to  trace  the  laws  of 
mental  growth,  to  explain  the  method  of  education  which 
these  laws  require ;  and  to  show  the  special  adaptation 
of  Botany  to  carry  out  that  method  in  the  systematic  cul- 
tivation of  the  observing  powers. 

The  pamphlet  treats  of  the  following  subjects : 

I.  How  the  body  grows. 
II.  How  the  mind  grows. 

III.  Extent  of  early  mental  growth. 

IV.  Nature's  educational  method. 

V.  Deficiency  of  existing  school-methods. 
VI.  What  is  now  most  needed. 
VII.  Advantages  offered  by  Botany. 
VIII.  Defects  of  common  Botanical  study. 
IX.  Aims  of  the  present  work. 

Sent  by  mail  to  any  part  of  the  country  on  receipt  of 
postage-stamp. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

THE  method  to  be  pursued  by  the  aid  of  this  book  is  th« 
following :  The  child,  whether  at  home  or  at  school,  first  of 
all  collects  some  specimens  of  plants — almost  any  will  answer 
the  purpose  in  commencing.  These  consist  of  organs,  each 
of  which  is  made  up  of  different  parts,  and  these  vary  in  form 
and  structure  continually  in  different  species.  The  object  of 
the  learner  is  to  find  out  these  parts  or  characters,  and  to 
learn  their  names,  so  as  to  be  able  to  describe  them. 

The  beginner,  of  course,  must  start  with  the  simplest  char- 
acters. Turning  to  the  first  exercises,  for  example,  he  finds 
the  parts  of  leaves  represented  by  pictures  accompanied  by 
the  names  applied  to  them.  Guided  by  these,  he  refers  to  his 
specimens,  and  finds  the  real  things  which  the  pictures  and  the 
words  represent.  "When  a  few  characters  are  fixed  in  the  mind 
by  two  or  three  exercises,  he  will  commence  the  practice  of 
noting  down  what  he  observes.  For  this  purpose  a  form,  or 
schedule,  is  used,  containing  questions  which  indicate  what  he 
is  to  search  for.  Models  of  these  schedules,  filled  out,  are 
given  in  the  successive  exercises :  the  pupil  will  make  them 
for  himself  with  pencil  and  paper.*  He  now  carefully  observes 
his  specimen,  and  writes  down  the  characters  it  possesses,  with 
which  he  has  thus  far  become  acquainted.  Having  done  this, 
he  pins  the  specimen  to  the  paper  describing  it,  and  brings  it 
to  the  teacher  as  the  report  of  his  observation  and  judgment 
in  the  case. 

*  I  have  thought  it  desirable  also  to  present  the  whole  set,  at  the  end  of 
the  volume,  with  the  answers  omitted,  to  illustrate  at  a  glance  the  scope  of 
this  first  series  of  observations.  As  the  pupil  is  to  be  constantly  engaged  in 
schedule  practice,  and  as  the  schedules  are  not  to  be  preserved,  the  cheapest 
kind  of  paper  will  answer,  and  it  can  be  of  course  used  on  both  sides.  Slates 
will  do  just  as  well ;  but  then  the  description  must  be  numbered,  and  a.  Corre- 
sponding number  attached  to  the  specimen,  so  that  they  can  be  compared  bj 
the  teacher. 


XIV  SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS. 

This  operation  is  constantly  repeated  upon  varying  forms, 
and  slowly  extended  by  the  addition  of  new  characters.  He 
thus  goes  on  discovering  new  parts  and  acquiring  their  names 
— noting  the  variations  of  these  parts  and  the  names  of  their 
variations.  The  schedules  guide  him  forward  in  the  right 
direction,  and  hold  him  steadily  to  the  essential  work  of  ex- 
ercising his  faculties  upon  the  living  objects  before  him.  In 
every  fresh  collection  of  plants,  new  parts  and  new  relations 
will  solicit  the  attention,  and  will  have  to  be  observed,  com- 
pared, and  recorded.  Particular  kinds  of  plants,  let  it  be 
remembered,  are  not  described  in  the  look — they  are  not  even 
named ;  the  object  is,  by  constant  practice  and  repetition,  to 
train  the  pupil  to  find  out  the  characters  of  any  that  come 
in  his  way,  and  make  his  own  descriptions. 

An  acquaintance  with  Botany,  although  of  course  de- 
sirable, is  not  indispensable  in  using  these  exercises.  Any 
teacher  or  parent  who  is  willing  to  take  the  necessary  pains  can 
conduct  the  children  through  them  without  difficulty ;  and  if 
they  will  become  fellow-students  with  them  all  the  better.  The 
child  is  not  so  much  to  be  taught,  as  to  instruct  himself.  The 
very  essence  of  the  plan  is,  that  he  is  to  make  his  own  way, 
and  rely  on  nobody  else ;  it  is  intended  for  self- development. 
Mistakes  will,  of  course,  be  made ;  but  the  whole  method  is 
self -correcting,  and  the  pupil,  as  he  goes  forward,  will  be  con- 
stantly rectifying  his  past  errors.  The  object  is  less  to  get 
perfect  results  at  first  than  to  get  the  pupil's  opinion  upon  the 
basis  of  his  own  observations. 

Children  can  begin  to  study  plants  successfully  by  this 
method  at  six  or  seven  years  of  age,  or  as  soon  as  they  can 
write.  But  close  observations  should  not  be  required  from 
young  beginners,  nor  the  exercises  be  prolonged  to  weariness. 
The  transition  from  the  unconscious  and  spontaneous  observa- 
tions of  children  to  conscious  observation  with  a  definite  pur- 
pose should  be  gradual,  beginning  and  continuing  for  some 
time  with  the  easiest  exercises  upon  the  most  simple  and  obvi- 
ous characters. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. — THE  LEAP. 15 

Ex.  1.  The  Parts  of  a  Leaf. 16 

2.  The  Parts  of  a  Grass-Leaf. 17 

3.  Venation. 18 

4.  The  Framework  and  its  Parts 19 

5.  Feather-veined  and  Palmate-veined  Leaves 22 

6.  Margins 24 

7.  Bases 28 

8.  Apexes 31 

9.  Forms  of  Lobes 33 

10.  Forms  of  Sinuses 35 

11.  Kinds  of  Leaves 37 

12.  Shapes  of  Leaves 39 

13.  Petioles,  Surfaces,  and  Colors 45 

14.  Simple  and  Compound  Leaves 47 

15.  Parts  of  Compound  Leaves 49 

16.  Pinnate  and  Digitate  Leaves 51 

17.  Varieties  of  Pinnate  Leaves 52 

18.  Varieties  of  Digitate  Leaves 54 

19.  Forms  of  Stipules 57 

20.  Examples  of  Description 59 

CHAJ>.  H.— THE  STEM. 60 

Ex.  21.  Parts  of  the  Stem,  and  Leaf  Axil 60 

22.  Appendages  of  the  Stem 62 

23.  Position  of  Leaves 64 

24.  Arrangement  of  Leaves  on  the  Stem. 66 

25.  Shapes  of  Stems 69 

26.  Attitude  of  Stems 71 

27.  Color,  Surface,  Size,  Structure 74 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  IU.— THE  INFLORESCENCE Te 

Ex.  28.  Solitary  and  Clustered  Inflorescence 76 

29.  Parts  of  the  Inflorescence 78 

30.  Attitude  of  Inflorescence 80 

31.  Solitary  Terminal  and  Axial  Inflorescence 82 

32.  Clustered  Axial  and  Terminal  Inflorescence 84 

33.  Definite  and  Indefinite  Inflorescence 87 

34.  Varieties  of  Inflorescence 90 

CHAP.  IV.— THE  FLOWER 96 

Ex.  35.  Parts  of  the  Flower 96 

36.  Parts  of  the  Calyx 97 

37.  Parts  of  the  Corolla 98 

38.  Kinds  of  Calyx 99 

39.  Kinds  of  Corolla  and  Perianth 100 

40.  Regular  and  Irregular  Corollas  and  Perianths 101 

41.  Parts  of  Stamens 103 

42.  Parts  of  the  Pistil 105 

43.  Parts  of  the  Ovary 105 

44.  Parts  of  the  Petals 107 

45.  Kinds  of  Regular  Polypetalous  Corollas 108 

46.  Kinds  of  Irregular  Polypetalous  Corolla. . 109 

47.  Parts  of  a  Gamopetalous  Corolla 112 

48.  Kinds  of  Regular  Gamopetalous  Corollas 113 

49.  Irregular  Gamopetalous  Corollas. 114 

50.  Crowns,  Spurs,  and  Nectaries 118 

CHAP.  V.— THE  ROOT 120 

Ex.  51.  Tap-Roots  and  Fibrous  Roots 120 

52.  Kinds  of  Tap-Root 121 

63.  Kinds  of  Fibrous  Roots 122 

EXAMPLES  IN  PLANT  DESCRIPTION 124 

CHAP.  VI.— THE  SEED 142 

Ex.  54.  Parts  of  the  Seed 142 

55.  Parts  of  the  Body  or  Kernel 145 

56.  Parts  of  the  Embryo 147 

57.  Monocotyledons  and  Dicotyledons 150 


CONTENTS.  XVU 

PAG« 

CHAP.  VII.— WOODY  PLANTS 153 

Ex.58.  Their  Different  Kinds 153 

59.  Parts  of  a  Tree 156 

60.  Parts  of  the  Trunk 158 

61.  Kinds  of  Trunk 159 

62.  Questions  about  Trees 160 

CHAP.  VIIL— THE  LEAF-BUD 166 

Ex.  63.  Parts  of  the  Leaf-Bud 166 

64.  Vernation 167 

CHAP.  IX.— STEM  AND  ROOT 174 

Ex.  65.  What  are  Roots? 174 

66.  Tubers,  Bulbs,  Conns,  Rhizoma 175 

CHAP.  X.— FRUIT 178 

Ex  67.  What  is  Fruit? 178 

68.  Sutures  and  Dehiscence 180 

69.  Parts  of  Carpels 182 

CHAP.  XI.— THE  ACTIONS  OF  PLANTS 184 

Ex.  70.  Root-action  and  Leaf-action 184 

LEAF  SCHEDULES 188 

STEM  SCHEDULES 193 

INFLORESCENCE  SCHEDULES 196 

FLOWER  SCHEDULES..,  .  199 


CHAPTER    I.  —  THE    LEAF. 


THE  pupil  will  see  from.  the  picture  what  is  to  be  done  first, 
and  how  we  are  to  proceed  in  commencing  the  study  of  plants. 
Having  collected  some  specimens,  let  us  begin  with  the  leaf.  On 
these  printed  leaves  there  is  a  language  which  children  have 
already  learned  ;  there  is  also  a  language  written  by  Nature  on 
the  leaves  that  grow  :  we  will  now  learn  to  read  that. 


Li$H       *    A  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE   I. 
The   Parts  of  a  Leaf. 

THE  beginner  will  gather  some  leaves,  and  find 
out  the  names  of  their  parts  by  comparing  them  with 
the  picture. 

FIG.  1. 


Blade. 


Petiole. 

s  Stipules. 

BLADE. — The  flattened  green  part  of  the  leaf. 
PET'IOLE.— The  leaf-stalk. 

STIP'ULES. — Small  bodies  at  the  base  of  the  petiole, 
that  look  more  or  less  like  leaves. 

NOTES  FOR  TEACHERS. — The  exercises  begin  with  leaves,  be- 
cause they  are  the  simplest  and  the  most  common  parts  of 
plants,  and  because  they  present  the  greatest  variety  of  forms, 
and  are  most  easily  procured.  The  aim  of  the  first  exercise  is 
to  teach  the  parts  of  a  leaf  and  their  names.  It  is  likely  that 
the  first  gathering  of  leaves  will  be  done  carelessly,  and  that, 


THE    LEAF.  £ 

EXERCISE  II. 
Parte  o/  a  Grass-Leaf. 

GATHER  a  handful  of  grass  and  see  if  you  can  find 
the  parts  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

FIG.  2. 


ra  M  nBMe' 

Sheath. 
Ligule. ... 

I 

Sheath.  ~-l  „ 


BLADE. — The  flattened  upper  part  of  the  leaf. 
SHEATH. — A  leaf-stalk  surrounding  the  stem. 
LIG'ULE. — The.  scale-like   stipule  often  seen  be- 
tween the  sheath  and  the  blade. 

when  compared  with  Fig.  1,  the  specimens  will  be  found  lacking 
in  some  of  the  parts  there  seen.  This  will  make  it  necessary  to 
repeat  the  exercise.  At  the  second  trial  the  leaves  will  be  pulled 
with  more  care,  and  the  pupil  will  seek  for  those  having  all  the 
parts  seen  in  the  picture.  Let  him  point  out  the  parts  in  each 
of  his  specimens,  and  give  them  their  names,  repeating  the  pro- 
cess till  he  can  do  it  without  hesitation  or  mistake. 


.  THE    FIRST    BOOK    OF    BOTANY. 


EXERCISE  III. 
Venation. 

VENA'TION. — The  lines  seen  upon  the  leaf-blade 
are  called  its  venation. 

Hold  up  a  leaf  between  your  eye  and  the  light, 
and,  if  you  see  a  net-work  of  irregular  lines,  it  is  a 
net-veined  leaf ;  but,  if  you  see  no  such  net-work,  as 
in  Fig.  4,  it  is  a  parallel-veined  leaf. 


FIG.  3. 


FIG.  4. 


A  Net-veined  Leaf. 


A  Parallel-veined  Leaf. 


LOOKING  AND  OBSERVING. — There  are  plenty  of 
boys  and  girls  who  have  always  lived  in  a  garden, 
and  yet,  if  you  asked  them  the  difference  between  a 
potato-leaf  and  a  bean-leaf,  they  could  not  tell  you. 
They  have  looked  at  potato-plants  and  bean-plants 
often  enough,  but  they  have  never  observed  them. 


THE    LEAF. 


19 


When  we  observe  a  thing,  we  not  only  look  at  it, 
but,  as  we  look,  we  think  particularly  about  it.  For 
instance,  after  these  exercises,  when  you  look  at  a 
leaf,  you  will  think,  what  parts  has  it  ?  and,  is  it  net- 
veined  or  not  ?  You  will  observe  these  particulars 
about  it. 

THE  SCHEDULE. — That  you  may  be  sure  to  look 
at  plants  with  care,  and  that  your  teacher  may  see 
what  you  think  about  them,  little  diagrams,  called 
schedules,  are  used,  in  which  you  are  to  write  down 
what  you  observe.  They  have  questions  written 
upon  them,  which  you  are  to  answer  by  studying  the 
plants  themselves. 


FIG.  5. 


SCHEDULE  FIRST.  DESCKIBIXG  FIG.  5. 


Parts  ? 


Yenation  ? 


XOTE. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  attention  of  the  child 
is  restricted  to  one  additional  point  at  each  exercise.  This 
will  prevent  the  confusion  of  ideas  which  is  liable  to  arise 
when  several  new  features  of  plant-structure  are  presented  to 
the  mind  at  the  same  time. 


20  THE   FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

Here  is  such  a  schedule  about  Fig.  5.  On  the 
left,  two  words  are  printed  with  interrogation-points, 
which  show  that  they  are  questions.  The  word 
Parts?  means,  what  parts  has  this  leaf  ?  The  word 
Venation  ?  means,  what  is  its  venation  ?  The  an- 
swers to  these  questions  are  found  by  looking  at  the 
picture,  and  they  are  then  written  in  the  schedule  as 
you  see. 

Take  a  sheet  of  ruled  paper,  and  make  a  vertical 
pencil-mark  an  inch  or  two  from  the  left  edge ;  at 
the  left  of  this  mark  write  the  questions,  Parts? 
Yenation  ?  Now  examine  a  real  leaf,  and  opposite 
the  question,  Parts?  write  what  parts  you  find. 
Look  again  at  its  venation,  and  write  the  answer 
to  this  question  also.  Pin  each  leaf  upon  the  paper 
that  describes  it,  and  hand  the  collection  to  the 
teacher,  to  see  if  you  have  observed  correctly. 


EXERCISE  IV. 
The  Framework  and  its  Parts. 

THE  lines  upon  the  blade  of  a  leaf,  shown  in  Fig. 
6,  are  made  by  its  framework.  The  spaces  between 

NOTE. — A  word  of  caution  is  here  necessary  against  mis- 
taking the  purpose  of  this  book  for  that  of  common  botanies. 
The  aim  of  ordinary  botanical  teaching  is  simply  to  impart  to 
pupils  a  knowledge  of  plants.  In  our  schools  the  ambition  of 
both  teacher  and  pupil  is  to  get  something  done  as  quickly  as 
possible  that  will  show  proficiency.  Hence  the  early  attempts 
at  the  classification  of  plants  and  the  consequent  precipitation 


THE   LEAF. 


21 


these  lines,  which  are  darkened  in  Fig.  Y,  are,  in  the 
living  leaf,  filled  with  green  matter. 


FIG.  6. 


You  know  the  names  of 
the  parts  of  a  leaf,  and  the 
two  following  pictures  will 
show  you  what  to  call  the 
different  parts  of  the  frame- 
work. 

RIBS.  —  The  stoutest 
pieces  of  the  framework  that 
begin  at  the  petiole  and 
reach  quite  across  the  blade, 
are  called  ribs.  When  there 
is  but  one,  as  in  Fig.  8,  it  is 
called  a  midrib. 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  8. 


-Veinlets. 


Vein. 


-Midrib. 


of  the  pnpil  into  the  complexities  of  the  subject  before  the 
simpler  portions  have  been  sufficiently  mastered. 

Now,  the  aim  of  this  book  is  carefully  to  guard  against  such 
a  result.  These  first  observations  are  made  without  reference 
to  those  combinations  of  characters  by  which  plants  are  identi- 
fied as  belonging  to  a  particular  order,  genus,  or  species.  One 
of  our  aims  is  to  learn  the  elementary  facts  so  thoroughly  and 


THE   FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 
FIG.  9. 


Veinlete. 


YEINS. — The  branches  of  the  ribs  are  called  veins. 
YEIN'LETS. — The  branches  of  the  veins  are  called 
veinlets. 


EXERCISE  Y. 
Feather -veined  and  Palmate-veined  Leaves. 

IF  you  have  carefully  compared  a  few  living  leaves 
with  Figs.  8  and  9,  you  know  the  difference  between 
ribs  and  veins. 

familiarly  that  we  may  be  prepared  to  go  forward  and  use  them 
afterward.  We  first  study  the  parts  of  plants  one  after  another, 
on  account  of  what  they  offer  directly  to  observation.  When 
the  characters  of  leaves,  stems,  flowers,  etc.,  have  become 
familiar,  their  relations  to  each  other  in  different  plants,  which 
are  usually  thrust  upon  the  attention  at  the  outset  of  study, 
will  come  to  be  seen  with  little  effort.  This  spontaneous  action 
will  be  sure  to  occur  as  soon  as  the  pupil  is  prepared  for  it. 
All  that  need  be  done,  therefore,  is  to  keep  the  elements  of 
the  subject  before  the  mind,  and  to  acquire  the  use  of  accurate 


THE   LEAF. 


FIG.  11. 


Now,  when  a  leaf  lias  but  one  rib — a 
midrib — which  gives  off  veins  right  and 
left,  like  Fig.  10,  making  it  look  some- 
thing like  a  feather,  it  is  called  a  feather- 
veined  leaf;  and  when  several  ribs  pass 

across  the  blade 
in  a  spreading 
fashion,  as  in 
Fig.  11,  the 
leaf  is  said  to 
be  palmate- 
veined.  Who- 
ever named  it 
so,  must  have 
thought  the  ribs 
looked  like  the 
spread-out  fingers  branching  off  from  the  palm  of 
the  hand. 

If  a  leaf  is  net-veined,  it  will  be  in  one  of  these 
two  fashions.  It  will  be  either  feather-veined  or 
palmate-veined.  In  answering  the  question  Vena- 
tion ?  in  your  schedule,  you  may  now  state  whether 
the  leaf  in  hand  is  feather-veined  or  palmate- veined. 

You  may  sometimes  be  troubled  to  decide  whether 
a  leaf  is  feather-veined  or  palmate-veined.  Large 
Veins  near  the  base  sometimes  look  very  much  like 
ribs.  Compare  your  leaf  carefully  with  the  pictures 
and  definitions,  and  write  your  opinion  in  the  sched- 
ule. You  may  make  mistakes  at  first,  but  further 
observation  will  enable  you  to  correct  them. 


terms  in  description,  without  troubling  ourselves   about  the 
higher  growths  of  the  science. 


24: 


THE  FIRST  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 


EXEKCISE  VI. 
Margins. 

MARGIN. — THE  edge  of  a  leaf-blade  is  called  its 


margin. 


Fia.  12. 


FIG.  13. 


Entire. 


Serrate. 


An  ENTIRE  margin  is  even  and  smooth,  like  Fig.  12. 
A  SER'RATE  margin  has  sharp  teeth  pointing  for- 
ward like  a  saw  (see  Fig.  13). 


FIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  16. 


Dentate.  Dentate.  Crenate. 

A  DENTATE  margin  has  sharp  teeth  pointing  out- 


THE   LEAF. 


25 


ward.     Figs.  14  and  15  are  different  forms  of  Dentate 
margin. 

A  CRE'NATE  margin  has  broad,  rounded  notches, 
like  Fig.  16. 


FIG.  17. 


Eepand. 


A  Lobed  Leaf. 


In  REPAND'  (WAVY)  margins  the  edge  curves  out- 
ward and  inward,  as  in  Fig.  17. 

Such  deep  notches  as  are  seen  in  Fig.  18  form 
lobes. 

Each  of  these  different  kinds  of  margin  varies  in 
many  ways,  and  some  of  the  variations  are  important 


Fio.  19. 


FIG.  20. 


Coarsely  Serrate. 


Finely  Serrate. 


in  description.      For  instance,  serrate  margins  are 
sometimes  COARSELY  SERRATE  (Fig.  19),  FINELY  SER- 


26 


THE  FIRST  BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 


RATE  (Fig.  20),  DOUBLY  SERRATE  (Fig.  21),  and  UN- 
EVENLY SERRATE  (Fig.  22). 


FIG.  21. 


FIG.  22. 


Doubly  Serrate. 


Unevenly  Serrate. 


Look  out  for  the  same  kinds  of  variation  among 
crenate  margins.  Fig.  23  shows  you  a  FINELY  ORE- 
NATE  margin.  Doubly  cre- 
nate margins  are  very  com- 
mon. 

Dentate  margins  are 
coarse,  fine,  double,  and  also 
uneven. 

You  will  sometimes  find 
two  kinds  of  margin  on  the 
same  leaf.  Part  of  the  notches  may  be  serrate  and 
part  dentate,  and  this  forms  a  serrate-dentate  margin. 
If  some  of  the  notches  are  crenate  and  some  serrate, 
it  will  be  crenate-serrate,  and  so  on. 

In  answering  the  new  question,  Margin  ?  which 
you  will  find  in  the  next  schedule,  you  must  look 
closely,  for  all  these  different  forms,  and  get  familiar 
with  the  terms  by  which  they  are  described. 


Finely  Crenate. 


ScHEDtrLE  SECOND,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  24. 


Parts? 

&A*.  W-*  3fr& 

Yenation  ? 

m,^^. 

Margin  ? 

(Sntt'te. 

28  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OP   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  VII. 
Bases. 

THE  BASE  of  a  leaf  is  its  lower  or  attached  end. 
Bases  are 

COR'DATE  (HEART-SHAPED). — Shaped  like  a  heart, 
at  the  base.  Fig.  25. 


FIG.  25. 


FIG.  26. 


FIG.  27. 


REN'IFORM*(KIDNEY-SHAPED). — Shaped  like  a  kid- 
ney. Broader  than  long.  Fig.  26. 

AURIC'TJLATE  (EAR-SHAPED). — With  small,  rounded 
lobes  at  the  base.  Fig.  27. 


FIG.  28. 


FIG.  29. 


FIG.  30. 


FIG.  31. 


HAS'TATE  (HALBERT  -  SHAPED).  — With  spreading 
lobes  at  the  base.  Fig.  28. 

SAGITTATE  (ARROW-SHAPED). — With  sharp  lobes  at 
the  base  pointing  backward.  Fig.  29. 

*  By  some,  this  term  is  applied  only  to  the  whole  leaf. 


THE   LEAF. 


29 


OBLIQUE'. — With  one  side  of  the  base  larger  and 
lower  than  the  other.  Fig.  30. 

TAPERING. — Where  the  blade  tapers  off  at  the 
base.  Fig.  31. 


FIG.  32. 


FIG.  33. 


FIG.  34 


CLASPING. — "Where  the  base  folds  around  the  stem 
of  the  plant.  Fig.  32. 

CONNATE'. — Where  the  bases  of  two  leaves  grow 
together  around  the  plant-stem,  as  in  Fig.  33. 

DECUB'RENT. — Where  the  lower  part  of  the  mid- 
rib grows  to  the  plant-stem,  as  in  Fig.  34. 


XOTE. — Children  will,  of  course,  get  leaves  from  the  same 
plants,  and  describe  them  over  and  over  again  as  they  pass  on 
from  schedule  to  schedule.  A  few  plants  will  ohtrude  them- 
selves upon  the  attention,  and  each  day  the  pupil  will  gather 
leaves  from  these  alone.  At  first  they  will  have  very  little 
enterprise  in  searching  for  new  specimens,  but  will  be  con- 
tent with  whatever  is  easiest.  These  will  serve  perhaps  as 
well  as  any  to  illustrate  the  new  character  brought  out  by 
the  new  schedule,  but  the  repetition  of  old  observations  upon 
them  will  require  but  little  effort  of  the  attention.  This  repe- 
tition of  observations  upon  the  same  varieties  of  leaves  is 
proper  and  desirable,  but  not  sufficient  for  our  purpose.  As  the 
wealth  of  varied  forms  that  plants  present  is  to  be  our  means 
of  educating  the  observation,  it  is  indispensable  that  our  re- 


30  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTAJSIY. 

FIG.  35. 


SCHEDULE  THIRD,  DESCRIBING  FIG. 


Parts  ? 


Venation  ? 


Margin  ? 


fenfo'ie. 


Base? 


The  base  of  Fig.  35  is  much  less  tapering  than 
Fig.  31.  You  will  find  all  degrees,  in  this  respect, 
from  very  blunt  to  very  tapering.  You  will  also 
be  likely  to  find  many  leaves  to  which  none  of 
these  pictures  apply.  In  such  cases  you  may 
write,  I  do  not  know,  in  the  schedule,  and  wait 
till  further  exercises  have  shown  you  how  to  de- 
scribe them. 


sources  shall  be  as  extensive  as  possible.  Teachers  should  there- 
fore press  beginners  and  negligent  pupils  about  looking  for 
new  specimens.  After  a  little  time,  such  pressing  will,  in  most 
cases,  be  unnecessary ;  for,  when  the  interest  and  pride  of 
a  child  are  awakened  by  success  in  describing  plants,  he  will 
take  increasing  pains  to  find  new  subjects  for  description. 


THE   LEAF.  31 

EXERCISE   VOL 

Apices. 

THE  APEX  of  a  leaf  is  its  top,  or  free  end. 

FIG.  38.  FIG.  39.  FIG.  40. 


FIG.  36. 


The  Apex  of  a  leaf  may  be : 

ACUTE'. — Simply  ending  with  a  point.     Fig.  36. 

ACU'MIR  ATE. — Ending  with  a  long  tapering  point. 
Fig.  37. 

OBTUSE'. — Blnnt.     Fig.  38. 

TRUN'CATE. — Cut  off  at  the  apex.    Fig.  39. 

KETUSE'. — With  the  end  rounded  inward.  Fig. 
40. 


FIG.  41. 


FIG.  42. 


FIG.  43. 


FIG.  44. 


OBCOR'DATE. — Heart-shaped  at  the  apex.    Fig.  41. 

EMAR'GINATE. — With  a  small  notch  at  the  apex. 
Fig.  42. 

MT/CRONATE. — Tipped  with  a  stiff,  sharp  point. 
Fig.  43. 

CUS'PIDATE. — Suddenly  ending  with  a  sharp,  slen- 
der point.  Fig.  44. 


32 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


The  words  acute,  acuminate,  and  obtuse  may  be 
used  to  describe  bases  as  well  as  apices,  and,  when  we 
wish  to  say  that  a  shape  is  less  acute  or  less  acumi- 
nate than  Figs.  36  and  37,  we  may  say  it  is  sub-acute 
or  sub-acuminate,  as  in  the  schedule  to  Fig.  45. 

Fro.  45. 


SCHEDULE  FOURTH,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  45. 


Parts  ? 


Yeiiation  ? 


e,   <jtih 


Margin  ? 


Base? 


t* 


Apex 


-acute. 


THE    LEAF.  33 

EXERCISE   IX. 
Forms  of  Lobes. 

THE  most  striking  difference  in  lobed  leaves  is  the 
one  seen  in  contrasting  Fig.  46  with  Fig.  47.  It  will 
be  quite  enough  to  ask  of  young  beginners  that  they 
report  whether  the  lobes  of  a  leaf  are  rounded  or  acute. 


FIG.  46. 


FIG.  47. 


Rounded  Lobes. 


Acute  Lobes. 


But  there  may  be  older  pupils  who  could  profit- 
ably go  further  in  observing  the  lobes  of  leaves.  They 
vary  much  in  size  and  shape,  and  are  rarely  all  alike 
upon  the  same  leaf.  The  lobe  at  the  apex  of  a  leaf 
is  called  the  Terminal  lobe,  and  is  usually  unlike  all 
the  others.  The  two  lobes  at  the  base  are  called 
basal  lobes,  and  these  also  are  usually  unlike  all  the 
rest ;  for  any  pupils  who  would  desire  fuller  observa- 
tions upon  lobes,  a  schedule  might  be  prepared  with 
two  additional  lines  and  the  two  questions,  Terminal  2 
and  Basal  ?  added  to  the  present  one.  It  might  be 
well  in  such  a  case  to  give  the  number  of  lobes  upon 


THE   FIKST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


the  leaf,  along  with  their  form,  in  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion Lobes  ?  While  the  peculiarities  of  the  terminal 
and  basal  lobes  would  be  given  after  these  questions. 


FIG.  48. 


SCHEDULE  FIFTH,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  48. 


Parts? 


Venation 


Margin 


Base 


Apex 


Lobes 


and 


In  dealing  with  lobed  leaves,  you  will  not  always 
find  the  base  and  apex  so  easily  described  as  is  Fig. 
53,  in  the  schedule.  If  they  give  you  trouble,  you 
may  omit  the  questions,  Base  ?  and  Apex  ? 


THE   LEAF.  35 

EXERCISE   X. 
Forms  of  Sinuses. 

The  SI'NUS  of  a  leaf  is  the  space  left  between  lobes. 

We  represent  here  some  of  the  most  usual  forms 
presented  by  Sinuses,  with  the  terms  describing  them 
printed  below  the  pictures. 


FIG.  49. 


FIG.  50. 


FIG.  51. 


Sharp  and  deep  Sinus. 


Broad,  round,  ehallovr  Sinus. 


36  THE   FIEST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  54.  FIG.  55. 


Round,  deep  Sinus. 

SCHEDULE  Six,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  55. 


Parts 


Venation  ? 


Margin  ? 


Cfebiafe. 


Base 


,   o/ien 


Apex 


Lobes  ? 


Sinuses  ? 


dcc/t,. 


NOTE. — It  will  be  observed  that  our  exercises  contain  none 
of  the  descriptions  of  plants  and  explanations  of  their  growth 
which  usually  make  up  the  text  of  botanies.  These  might  be 


THE   LEAF.  37 

EXERCISE  XI. 
Kinds  of  Leaves. 

FIG.  56.  FIG.  57.  FIG.  58. 


<?Pafl,-ip  T  P*f  Stipulate  and  Petiolate  A  Petiolate  and  Ex- 

ssile  Leat  Leaf  stipulate  Leaf. 

A  SES'SILE  Leaf  is  a  leaf  without  a  petiole. 
A  SIMULATE  Leaf  is  a  leaf  that  has  stipules. 
A  PET'IOLATE  Leaf  is  a  leaf  that  has  a  petiole. 
An  EXSTIP'IJLATE  Leaf  is  a  leaf  without  stipules. 

In  Schedule  Seven,  it  will  be  seen,  we  have 
dropped  the  question  Parts  1  and  put  Kind  \  in  its 
place.  The  words  by  which  you  answer  this  ques- 
tion are  very  long,  but  you  can  soon  learn  to  handle 
them,  and  by-and-by  you  will  find  them  much  more 
convenient  in  leaf-description  than  it  will  be  always 
to  give  a  list  of  the  parts. 

easily  given,  but  it  would  be  a  departure  from  our  essential 
plan.  The  work  before  us — the  observation  of  the  external 
characters  of  plants — is  itself  extensive,  and  it  can  only  be  well 
done  by  making  it  at  first  our  sole  occupation.  To  observe 
carefully,  to  repeat  our  observations  till  they  are  familiar,  and 
to  acquire  the  ready  and  accurate  use  of  the  vocabulary  of  de- 
scription, are  the  only  true  foundation  of  a  knowledge  of  botany ; 


38  THE   FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  59. 


SCHEDULE  SEVEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG. 


Kind 


Venation 


Margin  ? 


Base? 


Apex? 


Lobes  ? 


Sinuses 


and  we  must  be  careful  not  to  anticipate  the  work  which  be- 
longs to  a  higher  stage  of  the  pupil's  progress.  The  accounts 
of  tissues,  structures,  and  functions,  add  nothing  to  the  under- 
standing of  plant-forms,  and  they  afford  proper  subjects  for 
future  exercises  in  observation,  to  be  given  in  a  second  book. 
What  we  have  presented  is  eminently  adapted  to  childhood, 
when  sense-impressibility,  and  curiosity  about  appearances  are 
strongest,  and  before  the  reflective  powers  are  much  developed. 
The  apparent  meagreness  of  these  pages  is,  therefore,  inten- 
tional. They  might  easily  have  been  filled  with  interesting 
reading  matter  about  plants,  but  that  would  have  opened  the 
door  to  lesson-learning  and  reciting,  which  is  a  thing  we  special- 
ly wish  to  prevent. 


THE   LEAP. 


39 


EXERCISE  XII. 

Shapes  of  Leaves. 

COMPARE  leaves  that  are  not  lobed  with  the  first 
three  groups  of  pictures. 

LEAVES   THAT   ARE   BROADEST   IN   THE  MIDDLE. 

v 

FIG.  60.  FIG.  61.  FIG.  62. 


Rotun'date.  Broadly  elliptical 

FIG.  64.  FIG.  65.  FIG.  66. 


Elliptical. 


Oblong. 


f 

V 

\ 

I 

Linear. 


Aci(/ular. 


THE  FIRST  BOOK  OF   BOTANY. 


LEAVES   THAT   ARE   BROADEST   AT   BASE. 

FIG.  67.  FIG.  68.  FIG.  69.        FIG.  70. 


Cordiform. 


Hastate. 


Sagittate. 


Some  of  the  names  here  applied  to  the  whole  leaf 
have  already  been  used  to  describe  a  part  of  a  leaf. 
For  instance,  among  bases  we  had  the  heart-shaped 
base,  and  now  a  particular  leaf-form  is  said  to  be 
heart-shaped.  But  it  will  soon  be  seen  that  heart- 
shaped  bases  may  occur  in  leaves  of  very  various 
forms,  though  there  is  one  general  form  in  which  the 


THE    LEAF. 


4:1 


entire  leaf  resembles  a  heart,  and  is  therefore  said 
to  be  cordate.  So  the  base  of  a  leaf  may  look  like 
an  arrow,  while  the  rest  of  it  is  very  unlike  an 
arrow.  The  apex  may  be  truncate  or  obcordate,  or 
any  other  form  rather  than  the  acute  ending  of  an  ar- 
rowshaped  leaf.  Follow  the  order  of  the"  schedule 
carefully  in  your  descriptions  till  you  begin  to  grow 
familiar  with  varying  leaf-forms,  and  soon  all  ap- 
pearance of  confusion  in  the  use  of  words  will  be  at 
an  end. 

LEAVES  THAT  ABE  BROADEST  AT  THE  APEX. 
FIG.  74.          FIG.  75.        FIG.  76.      FIG.  77. 


Obcordiform. 


Obo^vate. 


Oblan'ceolate.       Spatb/ulate. 


Do  not  expect  to  find  an  exact  reproduction  in 
Nature  of  the  forms  pictured  in  the  book.  You  are 
simply  to  see  which  of  the  pictures  your  leaf  is  near- 
est like,  and  give  it  the  name  or  the  combination  of 
names  which  the  comparison  seems  to  justify. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  leaves  that  you  will 
not  at  first  be  able  to  describe.  But  if  you  find  a 


42  THE   FIRST  BOOK  OF   BOTANY. 

very  puzzling  leaf,  to  which  the  schedule  does  not 
seem  to  apply,  you  may  compare  it  with  the  follow- 
ing pictures.  Perhaps  it  will  be  like  one  of  these, 
and  if  so,  if  you  cannot  describe  it,  you  can  at  least 
learn  what  to  call  it.  If  it  is  not  like  any  of  these 
pictures,  it  will  be  best  to  postpone  its  study  for  the 
present.  By-and-by  you  will  know  better  how  to 
manage  it. 


FIG.  78. 


FIG.  79. 


FIG.  80. 


Euncinate. 


Bipinnatifid. 


Pedate. 


A  KTJN'CINATE  leaf  is  a  lobed  feather-veined  leaf, 
in  which  the  lobes  point  backward  toward  the  base. 
Fig.  78. 

BIPINNAT'IFID  leaves  are  formed  when  a  deeply- 
lobed  feather-veined  leaf  has  its  lobes  again  lobed,  as 
in  Fig.  79. 

A  PED'ATE  leaf  is  a  lobed  palmate- veined  leaf,  in 
which  the  lobes  at  the  base  are  lobed  again,  and  give 
the  leaf  a  look  like  the  foot  of  a  bird.  Fig.  80. 

CURLED  leaves  (Fig.  81)  are  formed  by  a  spread- 
ing of  the  border  of  the  blade. 


43 


PIG.  82. 


FIG.  83. 


FIG.  84. 


Peltate. 


Kidney-shaped. 


PELTATE  leaves  are  round,  and  have  the  petiole 
attached  near  the  middle  of  the  under  surface  of  the 
blade.  Fig.  82. 

A  KIDNEY-SHAPED  leaf  is  short  and  broad,  with  a 
rounded  apex  and  heart-shaped  base.  Fig.  83. 

A  LYRATE  leaf  is  a  lobed  feather- veined  leaf,  with 
the  terminal  lobe  much  larger  than  the  others.  Fig. 
84. 


44: 


THE  FIRST  BOOK  OF  BOTAJSTY. 


LACINIATE  leaves  are  so  named  because  they  look 
as  if  they  had  been  gashed  with  scissors.  Fig.  85  is 
an  example  of  such  a  leaf. 


FIG.  85. 


SCHEDULE  SEVEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  85. 


Kind 


Yenation  ? 


•     / 

=vemea  . 


Margin 


Base? 


Apex? 


Lobes  ? 


Sinuses  ? 


Shape 


THE   LEAF.  45 

EXERCISE  XIII. 
Petioles,  Surfaces,  and  Colors. 

THE  following  schedule  has  three  new  questions 
added  to  it.  The  first  is  Petiole  ?  The  shape  of  the 
petiole,  whether  round,  roundish,  or  half-round,  should 
be  observed,  and  written  down.  And  if  it  be  re- 
markable for  its  length  or  shortness,  if  it  be  unusu- 
ally limber,  or  unusually  stiff,  you  must  mention 
these  peculiarities  about  it. 

COLOR  ?  To  this  question  the  answer  is  easy. 
Leaves  are  sometimes  light  green,  sometimes  dark 
green ;  and  sometimes  the  upper  surface  is  one  color, 
and  the  lower  another.  There  are  spotted  and  striped 
leaves,  and  some  leaves  have  a  brownish  or  reddish 
tinge.  All  these  things  are  to  be  noted  when  you 
see  them. 

SURFACE  ?  Observe  whether  the  surface  of  a  leaf 
has  hairs  or  not.  If  it  has  hairs,  write  hairy  after 
this  question  ;  but,  if  it  has  no  hairs,  write  glabrous, 
which  means  free  from  hairs. 

Again,  surfaces  are  either  smooth  or  rough,  ob- 
serve which,  and  write  the  result  in  the  schedule. 

Some  leaves  have  a  very  shiny  surface,  and  some 
are  very  dull,  and  these  differences  should  be  ob- 
served, and  ^vritten  down ;  but  these  qualities  need 
not  be  noted  unless  they  are  strongly  marked. 

These  characters  cannot  be  conveniently  repre- 
sented by  pictures,  but  they  are  readily  seen  in 
actual  leaves.  Feeling  sure  that  you  can  easily  make 
them  out,  we  have  not  attempted  to  describe  a  leaf 
in  schedule  eight. 


THE  FIRST  BOOK  OF  BOTAISTY. 


The  schedule  is  now  made  up  of  the  following 
questions : 


SCHEDULE  EIGHT. 


NOTE. — While  in  a  book 
we  must  present  one  definite 
order  of  exercises,  it  is  well  if 
teachers  use  their  own  judg- 
ment in  adhering  to  this  order. 
Often,  doubtless,  much  will  be 
gained  by  judicious  deviation. 
There  are  minds  that  demand 
variety,  or  their  interest  flags ; 
and  the  minds  of  children, 
especially,  are  liable  to  grow 
weary  of  continued  attention 
to  one  class  of  objects.  Before 
proceeding  with  the  exercises 
upon  compound  leaves,  it  may, 
therefore,  be  advisable  to  turn 
to  the  chapter  upon  the  In- 
florescence, or  that  upon  the 
Flower,  and  occupy  a  little 
time  with  the  opening  exercise 
in  which  the  names  of  parts 
are  brought  before  the  mind. 
The  identification  and  naming 
of  the  parts  of  the  flower  will 
be  easier  to  most  children  than 
the  discrimination  of  simple 
and  compound  leaves;  while 
dealing  with  another  and  more 
showy  portion  of  the  plant 
will  stimulate  the  attention. 

The  use  of  schedule  eight 

should,  however,  still  be  kept  up,  and,  after  a  little  while,  the 
pupil  will  come  back  to  the  study  of  compound  leaves  with  a 
fresh  relish  for  the  subject. 


Kind? 

Yenation  ? 

Margin  ? 

Base? 

Apex? 

Lobes? 

Sinuses  ? 

Shape  ? 

Petiole  ? 

Color? 

Surface?    * 

COMPOUND  LEAVES. 

EXERCISE  XIY. 
Simple  and  Compound  Leaves. 


FIG.  88. 


FIG.  89. 


Simple  Leaf. 


Compound  Leaf. 


SIMPLE  LEAVES  have  only  one  blade. 

COMPOUND  LEAVES  consist  of  several  distinct 
blades,  called  leaflets.  You  may  know  leaflets  from 
lobes  by  their  being  entirely  separate  from  each  other. 

UP  to  this  time  I  suppose  that  pupils  have  de- 
scribed leaflets  as  leaves ;  but  they  must  now  be  care- 
ful not  to  make  this  mistake.  Let  them  confine 
themselves  to  simple  leaves  in  using  schedule  eight, 
and  write  simple  leaf  upon  it,  to  show  that  they 
have  considered  the  matter. 

It  is  sometimes  a  very  nice  point  to  decide  be- 
tween a  deeply-lobed  leaf  and  a  compound  leaf.  If 


48  THE    FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

confusion  at  first  arises,  it  must  be  patiently  borne. 
We  might  add  to  the  above  definition  of  a  compound 
leaf,  that  leaflets  are  jointed  to  the  stalk,  while  the 
divisions  called  lobes  never  are.  Such  a  statement 
would  save  trouble  at  first,  but  it  would  make  greater 
trouble  in  the  end.  The  truth  is,  that  deeply-lobed 
leaves  pass  by  insensible  gradations  into  compound 
leaves,  and  compound  leaves  have  their  leaflets  in  all 
stages  of  connection  with  the  common  stalk,  from  a 
complete  continuation  of  one  into  the  other,  up  to  a 
perfectly-jointed  connection. 

If  the  green  matter  of  a  leaf  is  continuous  around 
the  veins  and  along  the  ribs,  however  narrow  the 
strip  may  be,  it  is  quite  correct  to  call  such  a  speci- 
men a  simple  leaf. 


Fio.  90. 


FIG.  91. 


Lobes. 


Leaflets. 


There  is  no  way,  for  the  pupil,  out  of  this  diffi- 
culty except  through  a  course  of  careful  observation. 
Doubtless  many  mistakes  will  be  made  ;  but  mistakes 
are  very  useful  in  education. 


COMPOUND   LEAVES. 

EXERCISE  XV. 
Parts  of  Compound  Leaves. 


FIG.  92. 


FIG.  93. 


Leaflet. 


Kachis. 

Petiolule. 


Petiole. 

Stipules. 


Leaflets. 


Petiole. 


Stipules. 


50 


THE   FIRST  BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 
FIG.  94. 


Petiole. 


•Stipules. 


LEAFLET. — One  of  the  blades  of  a  compound  leaf. 
PET'IOLTJLE. — The  stem  of  a  leaflet. 
STI'PELS. — The  stipules  of  leaflets. 
RA'CHIS. —  The   continuation   of   the  petiole    to 
which  leaflets  are  attached. 

FIG.  95. 


SCHEDULE  NINE,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  95. 


Parts. 

<m~to.    fc4  &&*. 

No.  of  Leaflets. 

//• 

COMPOUND   LEAVES. 

EXERCISE  XVI. 
Pirfnate  and  Digitate  Leaves. 

FIG.  96.  FIG.  97. 


51 


Digitate  Leat 

In  PINNATE  Leaves,  the  leaf- 
lets grow  along  the  sides  of  the 
rachis. 

In  DIGITATE  Leaves,  the  leaf- 
lets all  start  together  from  the 
petiole. 


Pinnate  Leaf. 


SCHEDULE  TEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  97. 


Parts  ? 

&*A  3tyK*. 

No.  Leaflets  ? 

5, 

Kind? 

gjfy^ 

52 


THE   FIKST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXEKCISE  XVII. 
Varieties  of  Pinnate  Leaves. 

FIG.  98.  FIG.  99. 


Abruptly  Pinnate. 


FIG.  100. 


Unequally  Pinnate. 


FIG.  101. 


Cirrose. 


Interruptedly  Pinnate. 


COMPOUND    LEAVES. 


53 


ABRUPTLY  PINNATE. — When  the  leaf  terminates 
in  a  pair  of  leaflets.  Fig.  98. 

UNEQUALLY  PINNATE. — When  the  leaf  terminates 
in  an  odd,  or  single,  leaflet.  Fig.  £9. 

CIKROSE. — When  the  rachis  ends  in  slender 
branching  curls,  called  tendrils.  Fig.  100. 

INTERRUPTEDLY  PINNATE. — When  the  leaflets  are 
alternately  large  and  small.  Fig.  101. 

FIG.  102. 


Twice  Pinnate. 


TWICE  PINNATE. — When  the  petiolule  is  continued 
as  a  rachis  which  bears  the  leaflets. 


THE   FIEST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 
FIG.  103. 


Thrice  Pinnate. 


THRICE  PINNATE. — When  the  leaflets  are   borne 
upon  a  third  rachis,  branching  off  from  the  second. 


EXERCISE  XVIII. 
Varieties  of  Digitate  Leaves. 

THREE  -  FINGEEED. — A    digitate   leaf   with  three 
leaflets. 


Three-fingered. 


Five-fingered. 


FIVE-FINGERED. — A  digitate  leaf  with  five  fingers 
or  leaflets. 


FIG.  106. 


FIG.  107. 


Seven-fingered. 


Twice  Three-fingered. 


56 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


SEVEN  -  FINGERED. — A   digitate    leaf  with  seven 
fingers  or  leaflets.     Fig.  106. 


FIG.  108. 


SCHEDULE  ELEVEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  108. 


Parts  ? 


No.  Leaflets  ? 


SO. 


Kind  ? 


innate. 


Variety  ? 


NOTE. — This  is  the  last  leaf-schedule.  With  the  next  chap- 
ter we  begin  the  study  of  the  stem.  But  we  must  still  in  some 
way  pursue  the  study  of  leaf-forms,  if  we  would  render  per- 
manent the  knowledge  we  have  already  acquired.  An  observa- 
tion is  by  no  means  a  mental  possession  as  soon  as  it  is  made. 
True  knowledge  is  always  a  growth  requiring  time ;  and  ob- 
servations have  not  only  to  be  made,  but  to  be  repeated,  and 


COMPOUND    LEAVES. 

EXERCISE  XIX. 
Forms  of  Stipules. 


57 


Fio.  109. 


FIG.  110. 


Free  Stipules. 


Adnate  Stipules. 


STIPULES  are: 

FKEE. — When  not  united  with  any  other  part. 

ADXATE. — When  they  grow  to  the  petiole. 

the  facts  knit  into  their  places,  to  make  them  reliable  mental 
possessions.  Understanding  a  thing  is  but  the  first  step 
toward  its  real  acquirement.  A  succession  of  frequent  ob- 
servations is  necessary  to  induce  familiarity  with  objects,  and 
there  must  also  be  a  recurrence  to  them — a  revival  of  impres- 
sions after  considerable  intervals  of  time.  It  is  possible  to 
have  an  intense  familiarity  with  things  observed,  by  occupying 
the  whole  consciousness  with  them  for  a  short  time,  but  effects 
thus  produced  are  not  lasting.  We  shall,  therefore,  continue 
our  observations  of  leaves,  and  record  them  upon  the  stem- 
schedule.  Pupils  who  have  been  diligent  in  the  use  of  the 


58  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  111.  Fio.  112. 


Prickly  Stipules. 


Ochreate  Stipules. 


PRICKLY. — Like  thorns. 

OCHREATE. — When  they  form  a  sheath  around  the 
stem. 

If  any  of  the  distinctions  among  compound  leaves 
bother  very  young  pupils,  let  the  observation  of  such 
be  omitted  for  the  present. 

preceding  schedules,  ought  now  to  be  able  to  describe  leaves 
without  their  aid.  Exercise  XX.  consists  of  two  descriptions, 
in  which  the  schedule  questions  are  omitted.  The  order  of 
description  which  has  all  along  been  followed  will  naturally 
have  become  the  order  of  thought  with  pupils,  and  the  prompt- 


COMPOUND   LEAVES. 

EXERCISE  XX. 


59 


FIG  113. 


FIG.  114. 


LEAF  (Fig.  113). — Simple,  petiolate,  stipulate,  net- 
veined,  feather-veined,  entire,  abruptly  acuminate, 
broadly  oval ;  petiole,  short,  bordered  by  the  blade ; 
stipules,  free. 

LEAF  (Fig.  114). — Compound,  petiolate,  stipulate, 
unequally  pinnate,  number  of  leaflets,  5 ;  leaflets,  petio- 
late, feather- veined,  serrate,  ovate ;  stipules,  adnate. 

ing  of  questions  is  now  unnecessary.  They  have  answered 
their  purpose  if  they  have  led  to  a  knowledge  of  the  parts  of 
leaves  and  their  most  important  modifications  of  form.  When 
this  is  done,  it  will  be  much  more  important  that  the  pupil 
be  unassisted  in  making  descriptions  than  that  he  be  always 
methodical  and  correct. 

For  pupils  that  are  old  enough  to  punctuate  their  descrip- 
tions, the  following  rule  will  be  useful : — 1.  Separate  adjectives 
relating  to  the  same  noun,  by  commas ;  2.  Parts  of  the  same 
organ,  by  semicolons ;  3.  Distinct  organs,  by  a  period. 


CHAPTEE    II. 
THE  STEM. 


EXERCISE  XXI. 
Parts  of  the  Stem,  and  Leaf  Axil. 

FIG.  115. 


/Axil  of  Leaf. 


Internode. 


-Node. 


Nodes  and  luternodes. 


THE   STEM. 


61 


FIG.  116. 


FIG.  117. 


The  point  on  the  stem  from  which  leaves 
are  given  off. 

INTEKNODE. — The  portion  of  the  stem  between 
two  nodes. 

LEAF  AXTL. — The  point  at  the  upper  side  of  the 
leaf  where  it  joins  the  stem. 

NOTE. — Children  will  easily  find  the  nodes  and.internodes 
of  most  stems,  but  they  should  not,  therefore,  hurry  past  this 
exercise  without  tracing  the  successive  internodes  of  many 
stems  from  the  root  upward.  The  teacher  should  also  see  that 
a  clear  idea  is  gained  of  the  axil  of  a  leaf. 

If  Figs.  116  and  117  are  not  intelligible  to  beginners,  and 
the  parts  of  short  stems  like  these  are  distinguished  with 
difficulty,  let  them  be  passed  over,  as  the  coming  exercises 
are  not  dependent  upon  these  discriminations.  But,  for  those 
who  can  make  them  out,  they  will  be  profitable. 


62 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  XXII. 
Appendages  of  the  Stem. 


FIG.  118. 


Terminal  bud. 


Axillary  bud. 


.Branch. 


TERMINAL  BUD. — The  bud  at  the  end  of  the  stem. 
AX'ILLARY  BUD. — The  bud  in  the  axil  of  a  leaf. 
BRANCH. — A  stem  which  grows  out  of  an  axillary 
bud. 


THE   STEM. 


63 


SCHEDULE  TWELVE,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  119. 


Parts? 


Appendages  ? 


LEAF. — Petiolate,  exstipulate,  palmate-veined,  5- 
lobed,  broad  as  long ;  lobes  rounded,  entire ;  sinuses 
deep,  round ;  petiole  long,  slender. 

The  appendages  of  the  stem  (Fig.  118)  are  leaves, 
buds,  and  branches.  The  terminal  bud  continues  the 
growth  of  the  main  stem.  Axillary  buds  give  rise  to 
branches,  or, secondary  stems. 


THE   FIKST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  XXIII. 
Position  of  Leaves. 

Fro.  121. 


Stem  Leaves. 


Eadical  Leaves. 


STEM  leaves  grow  along  the  stem. 
RADICAL  leaves  start  close  to  the  ground,  or  below 
its  surface. 


NOTE. — The  term  radical  would  seem  to  imply  that  the  leaves 
spring  from  roots,  which  is  not  the  case,  as  shown  in  Fig.  117. 


65 


SCHEDULE  THIRTEEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  122. 


Appendages  ? 

tQeava),     <S%owett. 

Leaf-position  ? 

^au/tne. 

LEAF. — Simple,  sessile,  feather-veined,  entire,  lan- 
ceolate; stipule,  ochreate. 

The  question,  Parts  ?  is  now  dropped,  because  it 
is  answered  in  giving  the  position  of  the  leaves. 
To  say  that  leaves  are  cauline  is  to  say  that  the  stem 
is  composed  of  both  nodes  and  internodes,  while,  if  the 
stem  has  radical  leaves  only,  there  are  no  internodes. 

NOTE. — When  the  nodes  of  a  stem  are  distinctly  jointed, 
when  they  are  swollen  and  watery  (tumid),  when  they  are 
hairy,  or  when  of  a  different  color  from  the  internodes,  they 
give  a  peculiar  aspect  to  the  plant,  and  pupils  should  be  en- 


66  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE   XXIY. 
Arrangement  of  Leaves  on  the  Stem. 

FIG.  123.  FIG.  124. 


Alternate  Leaves. 


Opposite  Leaves. 


ALTEKNATE  LEAVES. — Leaves  are  alternate  on  the 
stem  when  there  is  but  one  at  each  node,  as  in  Fig. 
123. 

couraged  to  record  such  facts  upon  the  schedule.    Very  long  or 
very  short  internodes,  and  other  noticeable  peculiarities,  should 


THE    STEM. 


67 


OPPOSITE  LEAVES. — When  two  leaves  grow  oppo- 
site each  other,  we  call  it  the  opposite  arrangement. 
Fig.  124. 


FIG.  125. 


Whorled  Leaves. 


WHOKLED  LEAVES. — When  there  are  more  than 
two  leaves  at  a  node,  we  say  the  leaves  are  whorled. 


be  stated.  A  word  or  two  at  the  bottom  or  back  of  the  sched- 
ule, as,  nodes  tumid,  or,  inter-nodes  very  long,  is  all  that  is 
requisite.  Brevity  and  precision  of  statement  should  always 
be  insisted  upon. 


68  THE   FIRST  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  126. 


SCHEDULE  FIFTEEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  126. 


Appendages  ? 

<=s£eave4. 

Leaf-position  ? 

^hau&ne. 

Leaf-arrangement  ? 

Od^ebnate. 

THE  LEAF. 
ceolate. 


Sessile,  feather-veined,  serrate,  lan- 


NOTE. —  Leaf-position  and  leaf-  arrangement  pertain  as  much 
to  the  leaf  as  to  the  stem,  but  observations  concern  ing  them 
could  not  be  properly  made  until  something  was  known  of  the 
stem.  "When  the  pupil  becomes  familiar  with  these  characters, 
it  will,  perhaps,  be  more  appropriate  to  notice  them  in  the 
leaf-description  than  in  the  stem-description. 


THE   STEM. 


69 


FIG.  127. 


EXERCISE  XXY. 
Shapes  of  Stems, 

FIG.  128. 


FIG.  129. 


Square. 


Five-sided. 


Four-angled. 


These  are  by  no  means  all  the  shapes,  nor  the 
precise  shapes  that  stems  assume,  but  their  forms  will 
most  commonly  be  found  to  approach  very  nearly  to 
some  of  these  outlines.  If  any  forms  occur  that  are 
so  widely  different  from  the  pictures  as  to  perplex 
the  pupil,  he  will  consult  the  teacher. 


70 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTAKY. 

FIG.  13fi. 


SCHEDULE  SIXTEEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  136. 


Appendages  ? 


Leaf-position  ? 
Leaf-arrangement  ? 


Shape  ? 


THE    STEM. 


71 


LEAF. — Petiolate,  exstipulate,  palmate  -  veined, 
serrate,  base  cordate,  5-lobed,  terminal  lobe  acumin- 
ate, leaf  broader  than  long. 


EXEECISE  XXYI. 
Attitude  of  Stems. 


FIG.  138. 


Erect. 


Drooping. 


ERECT  stems  stand  upright. 

DROOPING,  stems  are  weak,  and  bend  over. 


72  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  139. 


/;£- ~-yO— -^--^^^^cr 

*<£J$F^. 

Creeping 


FIG.  140. 


Ascending. 


THE    STEM. 


73 


CKEEPING  stems  lie  along  or  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  and  send  down  roots  from  their  nodes. 

TKAILING  stems  are  weak,  and  lie  loosely  along 
the  ground.  Fig.  140. 

ASCENDING  stems  stand  slanting.     Fig.  141. 


FIG.  142. 


Climbing. 


FIG.  113. 


Twining. 


CLIMBING  stems  are  weak,  and  cling  by  tendrils  to 
the  objects  about  them. 

TWINING  stems  are  too  weak  to  stand  alone, 
and  support  themselves  by  winding  around  other 
stems. 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 
SCHEDTTLE  SEVENTEEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  143. 


Appendages  ? 

J2eave6t   G^'/owett. 

Leaf-position  ? 

mpautine. 

Leaf-arrangement  ? 

Q&Mnate. 

Shape  ? 

J^lound. 

Attitude  ? 

Q/winina  . 

/ 

LEAF. —  Simple,    petiolate,    exstipulate,    feather- 
veined,  entire,  cordate,  sub-acuminate. 


EXEECISE  XXVII. 
Color,  Surface,  Size,  Structure. 

COLOR. — Stems  may  be  spotted,  striped,  green, 
brown,  red,  or  purple. 

SURFACE. — The  surface  of  stems,  like  that  of 
leaves,  is  smooth,  rough,  shiny,  dull,  hairy,  and 
glabrous. 

SIZE.  -  Sterns  may  be  high  or  low,  slender  or  thick, 
and  it  is  easy  to  determine  these  points. 

STRUCTURE. — To  find  out  the  structure  of  a  stem, 
you  must  break  it,  and  observe  first  whether  it  is 
hollow  or  solid.  Next  examine  it  to  ascertain  if  it 
have  any  tenacious  threads ;  these  are  woody  fibres, 
and,  when  present,  they  help  to  make  the  stem  hard 


THE    STEM. 


75 


and  tough.  It  is  then  called  a  WOODY  stem.  But, 
if  it  is  soft  and  brittle,  it  is  *m  HERBACEOUS  stem. 
The  stem  schedule  consists  now  of  the  following 
questions : 

SCHEDULE  EIGHTEEN. 


Appendages  ? 

i 

Leaf-position  ? 

Leaf-arrangement  ? 

Shape? 

Attitude  ? 

Color  ? 

Surface  ? 

Size? 

Structure  ? 

NOTE. — In  schedule  eighteen,  as  in  schedule  nine,  no  picture  is 
described,  because  two  of  the  questions  now  added,  viz.,  Color? 
and  Structure  ?  relate  to  features  that  cannot  be  easily  repre- 
sented in  a  picture,  while  size  and  surface,  as  seen  in  nature, 
are  so  unlike  pictorial  presentations,  that  an  example  given 
here  would  be  but  a  poor  guide  in  schedule  practise.  The 
descriptive  terras  used  in  answering  these  questions  are  so 
familiar  as  not  to  need  illustration. 


CHAPTEK    III. 
THE    INFLORESCENCE. 

INFLORESCENCE. — The  way  flowers  are  placed  upon 
plants  is  called  their  inflorescence. 


EXERCISE  XXVIII. 
Solitary  and  Clustered  Inflorescence. 


FIG.  144. 


Solitary  Inflorescence. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE. 
FIG.  145. 


77 


Clustered  Inflorescence. 


SOLITARY  INFLORESCENCE  is  where  only  one  flower 
grows  upon  a  flower-stem.  Fig.  144. 

CLUSTERED  INFLORESCENCE  is  where  several  flowers 
grow  from  the  same  flower-stem. 

Flowers,  or  flower-clusters  without  stems,  are  said 
to  be  sessile. 

XOTE. — This  and  the  following  exercise  should  be  dealt  with 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  first  exercises  in  the  chapters  upon 
the  leaf  and  ..stem. 


78 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  XXIX. 
Parts  of  the  Inflorescence. 

FIG.  146. 


Peduncle. 


—-Peduncle. 


PEDUN'CLE. — The  stem  of  a  solitary  flower,  or  of  a 
flower  cluster. 

BRACTS. — The  small  leaves  of  a  flower-cluster  on 
the  peduncle,  or  rachis. 

IN'VOLUCRE. — A  whorl  of  bracts. 

PED'ICEL. — One  of  the  flower-stems  in  a  cluster. 

BRACELETS. — Yery  small  leaves  growing  upon 
pedicels. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE. 
FIG.  147. 


Involucre. 
redunclo. 


RA'CHIS. — The  continuation  of  a  peduncle,  from 
which  flowers  branch  off. 

RECEP'TACLE. — The  top  of  a  peduncle,  from  which 
several  flowers  start  together. 


80 


FIG.  150, 


THE   FIKST   BOOK   OF  BOTANY. 

EXERCISE   XXX. 
Attitude  of  Inflorescence. 

FIG.  151. 


Nodding. 


ERECT. — Upright. 
NODDING. — Bending  over. 


NOTE. — Many  of  the  characters  already  noted  as  belonging 
to  the  stem  of  a  plant,  belong  also  to  the  peduncle.  Its  color, 
surface,  shape,  length,  limpness,  twist,  and  curvature,  may  be 
recorded  in  connection  with  the  attitude  in  the  same  terms  as 
are  used  in  stem-descriptions. 

Some  of  the  statements  in  the  description  of  Fig.  152  are 
to  be  compared  with  the  living  plant,  and  not  the  picture. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE. 
FIG.  152. 


81 


Pendulous. 

PEN'DULOUS. — Hanging  down. 

SCHEDULE  EIGHTEEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  152. 


Parts? 

^ec/unc/e,   &£wet. 

Attitude? 

c/enauu-u^ 

LEAF.  —  Simple,  petiolate,  exstipulate,  feather- 
veined,  irregularly-dentate,  ovate-acuminate,  green, 
smooth,  cauline,  opposite. 

STEM. — Round,  slightly  bending,  reddish  brown, 
smooth,  slender,  solid,  woody. 


82 


THE    FIRST    BOOK    OF    BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  XXXI. 


Solitary  Terminal  and  Axillary  Inflorescence* 


Solitary  Terminal. 

An  inflorescence  is  SOLITARY  TERMINAL  when  the 
stem,  or  branch,  ends  in  a  single  flower. 

The  presence  of  nodes  upon  ordinary  stems  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  flower-stems  or  peduncles. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE. 


FIG.  154. 


83 


Solitary  Axillary. 

A  SOLITARY  AXILLARY  flower  is  one  where  the 
peduncle  starts  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf. 

In  Fig.  154  the  peduncle  of  the  lowest  flower 
starts  from  the  axil  of  the  leaf,  it  is  hence  an  axil- 
lary flower ;  but  the  peduncle  of  the  lowest  flower 
in  Fig.  153  starts  at  the  first  node  of  the  branch,  the 
growth  of  which  it  terminates  ;  it  is  hence  a  terminal 
flower. 


4  THE   FIRST    BOOK    OF    BOTANY. 

EXERCISE    XXXII. 
Clustered  Axillary  and  Terminal  Inflorescence. 

FIG.  156. 


Clustered  Terminal. 

A  TERMINAL  CLUSTER  of  flowers  is  one  that  ends 
the  growth  of  a  stem,  or  branch.  Fig.  156. 

Observe  that  the  lowest  bud  in  Fig.  156  is  hardly 
discernible  as  a  flower-bud.  The  next  is  a  little  more 
advanced,  the  third  still  more,  and  so  on  till,  at  the 
top  of  the  cluster,  you  see  a  fully  expanded  flower. 
The  oldest  flowers  are  at  the  top  or  centre  of  the 
cluster.  This  order  is  often  reversed,  the  oldest 
flowers  being  at  the  bottom  or  outside  of  the  cluster, 
and  it  is  important  for  you  to  notice  this  circumstance 
in  studying  inflorescence. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE. 
PIG.  157. 


85 


ANA 


Clustered  Axillary. 

<ARY  CLUSTER  of  flowers  is  one  where  the 


peduncle  starts  from  a  leaf  axil. 

The  question,  Position  ?  is  now  added  to  the  in- 
florescence-schedule. Every  inflorescence  is  either 
terminal  or  axillary,  and  the  pupil  is  to  determine 
this  point,  in  order  to  answer  the  new  question. 
When  he  hegins  the  study  of  botany  in  its  higher 
aspects,  he  will  find  that  much  depends  upon  his 
having  carefully  observed  such  points  as  these. 


86  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

SCHEDULE  NINETEEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  157. 


P-arts  ? 

&*~A.   &AJ.  <§&»*. 

Attitude? 

(Sleet. 

Position  ? 

Qt*£ 

LEAF. — Cauline,  opposite,  simple,  sessile,  feather- 
veined,  crenate,  or  creiiate-serrate,  lower  leaves,  sub- 
acute,  upper  ones  obtuse,  lower  leaves  broadly  ovate, 
upper  ones  broadly  oval. 

STEM  round,  erect,  herbaceous. 

NOTE. — Determination  of  the  position  of  an  inflorescence 
is  often  very  easy,  yet  sometimes  it  is  puzzling  and  difficult. 
For  instance,  although  the  cluster  (Fig.  156)  is  clearly  ter- 
minal, a  thoughtful  child  might  notice  that  each  flower  in 
this  cluster  is  axial,  and  so  hesitate  in  deciding  how  to  describe 
it.  Such  perplexities  will  be  gradually  cleared  up  as  the  child 
advances  with  the  study.  It  should  be  remembered  that  many 
of  the  observations  begun  with  this  book  are  necessarily  in- 
complete. Cloudiness  of  perception  concerning  some  matters 
must,  therefore,  be  tolerated  at  first.  Clear  and  complete  ideas 
can  only  arise  as  the  mind  develops,  and  the  subject  is  further 
pursued.  There  are  portions  of  almost  every  study  over  which 
children  are  liable  to  get  confused  at  first.  They  see  difficulties, 
but  cannot  see  through  them.  Yet  the  discovery  of  difficulties 
is  as  much  a  part  of  education  as  the  discovery  of  facts.  It 
is  the  overcoming  of  difficulties,  and  this  mainly,  that  exercises 
the  judgment,  and  calls  forth  mental  power.  But,  to  gain  these 
ends,  it  is  important  that  the  child  be  left  to  himself.  It  is  bet- 
ter for  him  to  form  his  own  opinion,  even  though  it  be  wrong, 
than  to  have  every  thing  explained  in  advance.  Extended  ob- 
servation and  continued  thought  may  be  trusted  to  correct 
errors  made  at  first,  as,  without  these  conditions,  there  can 
be  little  real  improvement. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE. 

EXERCISE  XXXIII. 
Definite  and  Indefinite  Inflorescence. 


87 


ALL  solitary  terminal  inflorescence,  and  all  ter- 
minal clusters  that,  like  Fig.  156,  have  their  oldest 
flowers  at  the  top  or  centre  of  the  cluster,  are  said  to 
be  DEFINITE,  because  they  end  the  growth  of  the 
stem  or  branch  that  bears  them. 


88 


THE  FIKST  BOOK  OF   BOTANY. 
FIG.  150. 


Indefinite. 


All  axillary  inflorescence  is  INDEFINITE,  because 
the  stem  and  branches,  if  there  be  any,  may  grow  on 
just  the  same  as  before  blossoming.  The  inflores- 
cence in  Fig.  159  is  indefinite.  The  stem  does  not 
end  with  flowers,  but  with  a  leaf-bud,  which  con- 
tinues its  growth. 

The  question,  Kind  ?  is  now  added  to  the  inflo- 
rescence-schedule, and  pupils  will  state,  in  answer, 
whether  the  inflorescence  is  definite  or  indefinite. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE. 
FIG.  160. 


89 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  160. 


Parts? 


. 


,    Jl/lacnM. 


Attitude? 


Position 


Kind? 


, 

ite. 


LEAF. — Cauline,  opposite,  simple,  sessile,  feather- 
veined,  entire,  oval. 

STEM  round,  erect,  slender,  herbaceous. 

NOTE. — Compare  Fig.  160  with  Fig.  156,  and  observe  that 
they  differ  in  the  order  in  which  the  flowers  unfold.  In  Fig. 
160  the  oldest  flowers  are  the  lowest  in  the  cluster.  There 
is  no  flower  at  the  top  of  the  cluster,  ending  the  growth  of  the 


90 


THE   FIRST   BOOK  OF   BOTANY. 


EXERCISE   XXXIV. 
Varieties  of  Inflorescence. 


FIG.  Ifil. 


SIMPLE. 
Fio.  162. 


FIG.  163. 


Head. 


Spike. 


Spadix. 


HEAD. — A  more  or  less  globular  cluster  of  flowers, 
sessile  upon  the  receptacle. 

SPIKE. — A  cluster  of  flowers,  sessile  upon  a  rachis. 

SPA'DEX. — A  spike  with  a  thick  rachis,  and  covered 
around  by  a  single  large  leaf,  or  bract,  called  a 
spathe. 


stem,  and  so,  as  the  rachis  may  grow  on,  sending  off  flowers 
from  its  side,  we  say  the  inflorescence  is  indefinite. 

The  primary,  or  main  stem,  of  a  plant  sometimes  ends  defi- 
nitely, or  with  a  flower,  while  the  branches,  or  secondary  stems, 
grow  on,  or  are  indefinite.  Sometimes  the  main  stem  is  indefi- 
nite, and  the  branches  are  definite.  When  both  kinds  of  in- 
florescence are  found  upon  the  same  plant,  it  should  be  stated. 

To  determine  whether  a  flower-head  is  definite  or  indefinite, 
observe  whether  the  unopened  flowers  are  at  the  top  or  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  cluster.  It  is  only  in  rare  instances  that 
they  all  open  so  nearly  at  the  same  time  as  to  show  no  differ- 


THE   INFLORESCENCE.  91 

FIG.  1C4.  FIG.  163. 


* 


Catkin. 


Racoaie. 


AMENT,  OR  CATKIN. — A  spike,  with  sessile  bracts 
among  its  flowers.  It  grows  on  trees  and  shrubs, 
and  falls  off  after  a  while. 

The  RACEME  is  a  flower  cluster,  where  the  flowers 
grow  upon  pedicels  of  about  equal  length  along  the 
rachis. 

FIG.  166. 


Glomerule. 


A  GLOMERULE  is  formed  by  nearly  sessile  clusters 
of  flowers  in  the  axils  of  opposite  leaves. 

ence  of  age;  but,  when  this  is  the  case,  you  must  leave  the 
question  undecided  till  you  have  discovered  some  other  mode 
of  solving  it. 


02  THE   FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  167.  FIG.  168. 


Corymb. 


Umbel. 


The  CORYMB  is  a  flower  cluster,  with  a  short 
rachis,  the  lower  pedicels  of  which  are  lengthened,  so 
that  the  cluster  is  flat  at  top. 

An  UMBEL  has  no  rachis,  and  the  pedicels  are  of 
nearly  equal  length. 


COMPOUND. 


FIG. 


FIG.  170. 


Compound  Raceme. 


Compound  Corymb. 


A  COMPOUND  RACEME,  OR  PANICLE,  has  a  long 
rachis,  and  the  flowers  grow  upon  branches  of  the 
pedicels.  When  such  a  cluster  is  thick  and  cone- 
shaped,  it  is  called  a  Thryse. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE.  93 

A  COMPOUND  CORYMB  is  a  corymb  with  the  flowers 
growing  upon  branches  of  the  pedicels.     Fig.  170. 


FIG.  171. 


Compound  Umbel. 

A  COMPOUND  UMBEL  has  a  second  umbel,  or  um- 
bellet,  upon  each  pedicel. 

NOTE. — Most  of  the  clusters  pictured  in  this  exercise  are 
represented  as  without  bracts,  that  differences  in  their  modes 
of  branching  may  be  more  easily  compared.  The  pictures 
represent  certain  styles  of  flowering,  and  each  of  these  styles 
varies  very  much  in  nature.  You  will  find  umbels  very  unlike 
each  other,  and  very  unlike  Fig.  170,  but  still  more  nearly  like 
that  figure  than  any  of  the  others.  And  so  of  panicles,  co- 
rymbs, &c.  Great  differences  among  the  clusters  of  one  variety 
may  be  occasioned  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  bracts,  by 
their  groupings,  forms,  and  colors,  by  the  length,  stiffness,  and 
ever  varying  positions  of  peduncles  and  pedicels,  as  well  as  by 
differences  in  the  form  of  receptacles.  And  besides,  the  vari- 
ous sorts  run  together  in  many  different  ways.  You  will 
sometimes  find  a  flower-cluster  resembling  two  different  varie- 
ties so  much  that  you  will  have  to  combine  the  names  of  the 
two  in  order  to  characterize  it  properly ;  as,  for  instance,  a 
corymbose  panicle,  a  panicle  of  heads,  or  a  spicose  umbel. 
When  you  cannot  name  the  variety,  say  so,  and  keep  the  in- 
stance in  mind  until  it  becomes  clear  to  you. 

5     ' 


94  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF    BOTANY. 

FIG.  172.  FIG.  17?.  FIG.  174. 


NOTE. — The  difference  between  definite  and  indefinite  flow- 
er-clusters is  shown  above.  Fig.  172  represents  an  indefinite 
raceme,  the  growing  end  of  which  is  surrounded  by  unopened 
flowers.  In  Fig.  174  the  reverse  is  the  case;  the  rachis  ends 
with  a  flower — the  oldest  flower  of  the  .cluster,  while  at  the 
other  end,  near  the  peduncle,  the  buds  have  scarcely  .begun  to 
unfold.  This,  therefore,  is  clearly  a  definite  raceme.  In  Fig. 
173  the  oldest  flowers  of  the  cluster  are  near  the  peduncle, 
the  growing  end  is  surrounded  by  undeveloped  buds,  and  its 
kind  is  easily  determined. 


THE   INFLORESCENCE.  95 

SCHEDULE  TWENTY-ONE,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  173. 


Parts  \ 


unc^,    gPuc*.   ^tacfa,    &M. 


tceti,  (^s'wuseM. 

Attitude  ? 

Stect. 

Position  ? 

°y    '   ^ 

^/ekTmncit'. 

Kind? 

Q/nc/efimte  . 

Variety? 

m^. 

LEAF. — Cauline,  simple,  sessile,  exstipulate,  feath- 
er-veined, serrate,  oval-acute. 

STEM. — Erect,  round,  herbaceous. 

This  is  the  last  inflorescence  schedule,  and  future 
descriptions  of  this  part  of  plants  will  be  made  with- 
out the  help  of  questions.  There  are  some  obvious 
characters  of  the  inflorescence,  easily  understood  and 
described,  that  have  not  been  named  in  the  schedule, 
and,  that  they  may  be  noted  in  future  descriptions, 
we  call  attention  to  them  here. 

When  many  flowers  are  crowded  upon  a  rachis,  or 
receptacle,  the  cluster  is  said  to  be  dense  ;  but  when 
they  are  few  and  scattering,  it  is  said  to  be  loose. 

The  bracts  of  a  cluster  may  be  very  numerous,  or 
they  may  present  peculiarities  that  a  child  can  easily 
describe,  such,  for  instance,  as  relate  to  shape  or 
color,  or  they  may  form  an  involucre  at  the  base  of 
the  cluster,  and  these  points  might  well  be  included 
in  a  description. 


CHAPTER   IY. 
THE  FLOWER. 


EXERCISE  XXXV. 
Parts    of    the    Flower. 

FIG.  175  represents  one  flower — the  parts,  though 
separated,  stand  in  their  natural  relation  to  each  other. 

FIG.  175. 


Pistil. 


Stamens. 


Corolla. 
1  Periaulh. 


Receptacle- 


RECEP'TACLE. — The  top  of  the  peduncle,  more  or 
less  swollen,  from  which  the  flower  grows. 

CA'LYX. — The  outer  circle  of  green  flower-leaves. 

COROI/LA. — The  inner  circle  of  delicately-colored 
flower-leaves. 


THE   FLOWER.  97 

PER'IANTH. — A  name  given  to  both  circles  of 
flower-leaves  when  they  are  so  nearly  alike  as  not  to 
be  separable  into  calyx  and  corolla. 

STA'MENS. — Slender,  thread-like  parts  next  inside 
the  corolla. 

PIS'TIL. — The  central  part  of  the  flower  inside  the 
stamens. 

When  there  is  but  one  whorl  of  flower-leaves, 
whatever  its  color,  it  is  called  a  calyx. 


EXERCISE   XXXVI. 
Parts  of  the    Calyx. 

FIG.  176.  FIG.  177. 


1 

Sepal. 


Sepal. 
Calyx.  ^xis^    sepal. 

SE'PAL. — One  of  the  leaves  of  the  calyx. 


NOTE. — The  first  thing  in  studying  the  flower  is  to  become 
acquainted  with  its  leading  parts  and  their  names.  This  is 
done  by  comparing  numerous  specimens  with  Fig.  175.  The 
pupil  is  then  ready  to  begin  work  with  the  flower  schedule. 
Figs.  177  and  179  are  given  to  assist  the  pupil  in  answering  the 
first  questions  upon  it.  Write  under  the  question,  calyx?  the 
names  of  the  parts  that  compose  the  calyx,  and  under  the  question, 
corolla?  the  names  of  the  parts  that  compose  the  corolla.  Then 
count  the  sepals  in  your  flower,  and  write  their  number  after 
the  word  sepals,  in  the  next  column ;  count  also  the  petals  in 
the  corolla,  and  write  their  number  after  the  word  petals. 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


EXERCISE  XXXVII. 
Parts   of  the    Corolla. 

FIG.  178.  FIG.  179. 


Petal. 


Petal. 


Corolla. 


PET'AL. — A  leaf  of  the  corolla. 


Petal. 


Petal. 


FIG.  180. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-TWO, 

DESCRIBING   FlG.    178. 


Names  of  Parts. 


Calyx 


Corolla  ? 


No. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-THREE, 

DESCRIBING  FlG.   179. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Perianth  ? 

<=z£eave£. 

6. 

THE    FLOWER. 

EXERCISE  XXXVIII. 
Kinds  of  Calyx. 


FIG.  182. 


FIG.  183. 


Polyscpalous  Calyx. 


Gamoscpa.ous  Calyx. 


A  POLYSEP'ALOUS  CALYX  has  its  sepals  distinct  from 
each  other,  so  that  each  one  can  be  pulled  off  separately. 

A  GAMOSEP'ALOUS  CALYX  has  its  sepals  more  or 
less  grown  together  by  their  edges,  so  that,  if  you 
pull  one,  the  whole  calyx  comes  off. 

Having  used  schedules  twenty-two  and  twenty- 
three  till  the  names  of  the  parts  that  compose  the 
calyx,  corolla,  and  perianth,  are  firmly  associated 
with  the  parts  themselves,  we  are  now  ready  to  begin 
their  description.  Schedule  twenty-four  shows  you 
where  to  write  what  you  have  to  say  about  them. 
Observe  first  whether  the  sepals  of  a  calyx,  the 
petals  of  a  corolla,  or  the  leaves  of  a  perianth,  are 
grown  together  or  not.  Sometimes  they  cohere  so 
slightly,  that  close  observation  is  necessary  to  ascer- 
tain it.  Be  cautious  about  pronouncing  a  corolla 
polypetalous  until  you  have  made  many  observations 
upon  different  specimens  of  it.  Do  not  guess. 

You  can  count  the  petals  of  gamopetalous  corollas 
by  their  marks  of  cohesion. 


100  ^      THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


EXERCISE   XXXIX. 
Kinds  of  Corolla  and  Perianth. 

.  184.  FIG.  185. 


Polypetalous  Corolla.  Gamopctalous  Corolla. 

A  POLYPET'ALOUS  COROLLA  has  its  petals  distinct 
and  separate  from  each  other,  so  that  each  one  can  be 
pulled  off  without  disturbing  the  others. 

A  GAMOPET'ALOTJS  COROLLA  has  its  petals  more  or 
less  grown  together  by  their  edges,  so  that  if  you 
pull  one  the  whole  corolla  comes  off. 

SCHEDULE  TWENTY-POUR,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  185. 


Names  of  Parts.        No. 


Calyx? 


Corolla? 


4. 


Description. 


a 


4. 


THE   FLOWER. 


A  POLYPHYL'LOUS  PERIANTH  lias  its  leaves  entirely 
distinct  and  separate  from  each  other. 

A  GAMOPHYI/LOUS  PERIANTH  has  its  leaves  more 
or  less  coherent  by  their  edges. 

In  the  schedule  will  be  seen  a  space  where  the 
forms  of  sepals  and  petals  should  be  recorded  in  the 
same  terms  used  to  describe  leaves. 


EXERCISE   XL. 
Regular  and  Irregular  Corollas  and  Perianths. 

FIG.  186. 


Regular  Gamopetalous  Corolla.  Irregular  Gamopetalous  Corolla. 

A  KEGULAR  CALYX,  COROLLA,  or  PERIANTH,  has 
its  parts  of  the  same  size  and  shape. 

An  IRREGULAR  CALYX,  COROLLA,  or  PERIANTH,  has 
its  parts  unlike  in  size  or  form. 


:THE  FIKST  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 
FIG.  188.  FIG.  189. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-FIVE,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  188. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Description. 

Calyx? 

'^//amotefeafout,   tUeauiai. 

fyad. 

0. 

Corolla  ? 

^&ame/i.etawat  ,  tiieautai. 

m^. 

3. 

SCHEDULE  TWENTY-SIX,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  189. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Description. 

Perianth  ? 
J^£eave6. 

6 

J^Zo/u/inuJlfout,   ieau/ak. 
/'     /                <f 

103 


THE  FLOWER. 

EXERCISE    XLI. 
farts  of  Stamens. 

FIG.  190. 

• Anther. 


I    "life-  Pollen. 


Filament. 

1 

FIL'AMENT. — The  stem-like  part  of  a  stamen. 

AN'THER. — The  thickened  oblong  head  of  a  fila- 
ment. 

POI/LEN. — The  dust,  or  powder,  seen  upon  the 
anther. 

Schedule  twenty-seven  has  added  to  it  the  new 
question,  Stamens  ?  Write  underneath  it  the  name 
of  the  parts  that  compose  a  stamen  of  your  flower. 
Count  the  number  of  stamens,  and  write  it  down, 
unless  they  are  too  numerous,  when  you  will  use 
the  character  oo  ,  signifying  many.  Write  free,  when 
they  are  so ;  and  coherent,  when  they  are  grown  to- 
gether. 

When  the  filament  is  absent,  write  sessile  after 
anther.  To  describe  the  filaments,  observe  whether 
they  are  long  or  short,  slender  or  thick,  flat  or 
round,  distinct  or  grown  together. 

Observe  whether  the  anthers  are  one-lobed  or 
two-lobed,  that  is,  whether  they  are  in  two  parts  or 
pieces ;  and  note  also  whether  they  are  oblong,  round, 
curved,  straight,  large  or  small,  longer  or  shorter  than 
the  filaments,  distinct  or  grown  together. 


104  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTAKY. 

FIG.  191. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-SEVEN,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  191. 


Names  of  Parts. 


Calyx? 


Corolla? 


Stamens  ? 


nament. 


No. 


4. 

GO 


Description. 


,   iegua 


Q/wo-ceMJ,   0Mma. 


NOTE. — Our  descriptions  of  pictured  flowers  are  necessarily 
imperfect,  because  the  pictures  are  themselves  imperfect.  As 
the  pollen  is  not  represented  in  Fig.  191,  it  is,  of  course,  omit- 
ted from  the  schedule.  We  can  say  nothing,  in  a  book,  of  the 
color  or  size  of  specimens ;  yet  the  plan  of  working  is  clearly 
illustrated,  and  pupils  will  not  find  it  difficult,  at  this  stage, 
to  add  such  points  without  the  guidance  of  a  pattern  schedule. 


THE    FLOWER. 


105 


EXERCISE  XLII. 
Parts  of  the  Pistil. 


Fio.  192. 


~  Stigma. 


—•Style. 


I        ___.  Ovary. 

li 


O'VARY. — The  lowest  part  of 
the  pistil,  containing  the  seeds. 

STYLE.  —  The  slender  stem- 
like  part  of  the  pistil  next  above 
the  ovary. 

STIG'MA.  — The  top  of  the 
pistil. 


EXERCISE  XLIH. 
Parts  of  the  Ovary. 


FIG.  193. 


FIG 


Carpel. 
-  Carpel. 


•^  —  Carpel. 
—  Carpel. 
--  CarpeL 


Four 
Carpels. 


CAR'PEL. — One  of  the  divisions,  or  cells,  of  the 
ovary. 


1C6 


THE    FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  195.  FIG.  196.         FIG.  197. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-EIGHT.  DESCRIBING  FIG.  195. 


Names  of  Parts.        No. 


Perianth  ? 


Stamens? 


Pistil  ? 


f<ma. 


Description. 


ia 


THE   FLOWER.  107 

The  question  Pistil?  is  now  added  to  the  sched- 
ule, and  is  to  be  answered  in  the  same  way  as  the 
questions  Perianth?  and  Stamens?  First  write  the 
name  of  its  parts  underneath,  and  then  find  out,  if 
you  can,  the  number  of  carpels  that  compose  the 
ovary.  It  is  sometimes  quite  difficult  to  do  this,  but 
it  is  well  always  to  make  the  effort.  When  the  car- 
pels cannot  be  distinguished,  you  determine  their 
number  by  counting  the  styles,  and,  if  these  are 
grown  smoothly  together,  then  count  the  lobes  of  the 
stigma.  It  is  very  seldom  that  this  part  of  the  pistil 
is  so  coherent  that  the  lines  of  union  are  invisible. 
You  can  often,  in  this  way,  find  out  the  number  of 
carpels  in  a  pistil,  when  every  other  means  fails.  In 
describing  the  various  forms  of  style  no  new  terms 
are  needed. 


EXERCISE  XLIV. 
Parts  of  the  Petals. 

FIG.  199. 


-—Limb. 


-Claw. 


LIMB. — The  upper,  and  usually  the  broadest  and 
thinnest,  part  of  a  petal. 

CLAW. — The  lower  part  of  a  petal,  which  attaches 
it  to  the  receptacle. 


108  THE  FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE   XLV. 
Kinds  of  Regular  Polypetalous  Corollas. 

FIG.  200. 


Cruciferous.  Caryophyllaceous. 

A  CRUCTF'EROUS  COROLLA  has  four  petals  growing 
in  the  shape  of  a  cross. 

A  CARYOPHYLLA'CEOUS  COROLLA  has  five  petals, 
having  each  a  long,  slender  claw,  and  a  spreading 
blade. 


FIG.  202. 


FIG.  2C3. 


Rosaceous. 


Liliaceous. 


A  ROSA'CEOUS  COROLLA  has  five  petals,  with  spread^ 
ing  lamina  and  short  claw. 

A  LILIACEOUS  PERIANTH  has  six  leaves,  bending 
away  something  like  a  bell. 


THE   FLOWER. 


109 


EXERCISE   XLVI. 
Kinds  of  Irregular  Polypetalous  Corolla. 


FIG.  204. 


FIG.  205. 


Papilionaceous  Corolla. 


FIG.  206. 


Banner. 


Win  us. 


Keel. 


The  PAPILIONACEOUS  COROLLA  has  five  dissimilar 
petals,  arranged  like  Fig.  204.  The  one  nearest  the 
stem  (the  upper,  Fig.  206)  is  called  the  banner;  the 
two  side  ones  are  called  wings,  and  the  lower  one  the 


NOTE. — Learn  to  distinguish  the  banner,  wings,  and  keel  of 
papilionaceous  corollas,  and  note  the  differences  of  their  forms 
in  different  kinds  of  flowers.  You  can  write  such  observations 
upon  the  back  of  the  schedule. 


110  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  207.  FIG.  203. 


FIG.  209. 

There  are  many  other  varieties 
of  polypetalous  irregular  corollas 
which  are  described  generally  as 
anomalous.  Fig.  207  is  a  com- 
mon form  of  anomalous  corolla. 
There  is  an  interesting  tribe  of 
plants  known  as  orchids,  which 
present  many  anomalous  forms  of  corolla ;  Fig.  208 
is  an  example,  Fig.  209  being  a  separate  flower  from 
the  same  plant.  Anomalous  flowers  should  be  further 
described  as  polypetalous  or  gamopetalous,  for  they 
occur  among  both  these  forms. 


FIG.  210. 


THE   FLOWER.  Ill 

FIG.  211.  FIG.  212. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-NINE,  DESCRIBING  Fro.  211. 


Names  of  Part-. 


Calx? 


Corolla 


Stamens  ? 


oten  . 


No. 


4. 


4. 


Description. 


wna,     Ltmu,  4 

/ 


ona. 

<7 


at  an 


tnet. 


Pistil? 


112  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE  XLVII. 
Parts  of  a  Gamopetalous  Corolla. 

FIG.  213.  FIG.  214. 

Throat. 

^T~ Border,  or 
Limb. 

—•Tube. 


TUBE.  —  That  part  of  the  corolla,  whether  long  or 
short,  in  which  the  petals  are  united  together. 

LIMB,  OR  BORDER.  —  The  upper  part  of  the  corolla, 
where  the  petals  are  not  united. 

THROAT.  —  The  opening  of  the  tube. 

COROLLA  TUBES  may  be  long  or  short,  slender  or 
swollen,  tapering  or  cylindrical,  or  with  a  pouch,  or 
sack,  on  one  side. 

The  LIMB  may  be  narrow  or  broad,  erect  or 
spreading;  and, 

The  THROAT  is  either  open  or  constricted,  hairy 
or  smooth. 

Note  these  features  in  describing  gamopetalous 
corollas. 


.  —  The  last  exercises  of  this  chapter  introduce  twenty  or 
thirty  new  terms,  expressive  of  as  many  different  ideas  of  form. 
In  learning  the  precise  word  for  each  form,  proceed  very  slowly 
from  exercise  to  exercise,  searching  constantly  for  illustrative 
specimens.  Learn  the  names  of  the  parts  of  a  petal  and  of  a 
gamopetalous  corolla.  Let  time  he  taken  to  examine  all  the 
flowers  that  can  be  found,  comparing  their  corollas  with  the 
pictures,  fixing,  for  each  flower,  upon  the  picture  it  most  nearly 
resemhles. 


THE   FLOWER. 

EXERCISE  XLVIH. 
Kinds  of  Regular  Gamopetalous  Corollas. 


113 


FIG.  215. 


FIG.  216. 


FIG.  217. 


Tubular.  Urceolate.  Rotate. 

FIG.  218.  FIG.  219.  FIG. 


Funnel-form. 


Salver- form. 


TU'BULAR. — A  tubular  corolla  is  one  in  which  the 
tube  spreads  little  or  none  at  the  border.  Fig.  215. 

UR'CEOLATE.—  A  corolla  is  urceolate  when  the  tube 
is  swollen  in  the  middle,  with  a  narrow  opening  like 
an  urn,  as  in  Fig.  216. 

RO'TATE,  OR  WHEEL-SHAPED  COROLLAS  have  a 
short  tube  and  flat,  spreading  border.  Fig.  217. 


THE    FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


FUN'NEL-FORM. — When  the  corolla-tube  is  small 
below,  and  enlarges  gradually  to  the  border,  as  in 
Fig.  218. 

SAL'VER-FORM. — When  the  long,  slender  tube  of  a 
corolla  ends  abruptly  in  a  flat  spreading  border,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  219. 

CAMPAN'ULATE. — Bell-shaped  corollas  are  said  to 
be  campanulate.  Fig.  220. 


EXERCISE  XLIX. 
Irregular  Gamopetalous  Corollas. 

LABIATE  COROLLAS. 


FIG.  2S3. 


FIG.  22 1. 


FIG.  2-72. 


Personate. 


Ringent.  Ligulate. 

LA'BIATE. — In  labiate  corollas  the  limb  has  the 
appearance  of  lips  ;  Figs.  221  and  222.  Labiate 
corollas  are  of  two  kinds,  personate  and  ringent. 


THE   FLOWEK. 


115 


PERSONATE.— With  the  throat  closed.     Fig.  221. 

KIN'GENT.— With  the  throat  open.      Fig.  222. 

A  LIG/ULATE,  or  strap-shaped,  corolla,  is  one  which 
appears  as  if  it  were  formed  by  the  splitting  of  the 
tube  on  one  side.  Fig.  223. 


FIG.  224. 


FIG.  225. 


Anomalous. 


Anomalous. 


ANOM'ALOUS. — All  other  irregular  gamopetalous 
corollas,  as  Figs.  224  and  225,  are  called  anomalous. 

In  describing  corollas,  the  terms  cruciferous,  lil- 
iaceous, tubular,  etc.,  may  now  be  used  in  place  of 
polypetalous,  gamopetalous,  regular  and  irregular,  as 
the  new  terms  include  these  characters,  along  with 
others,  more  limited  and  special.  To  say,  for  ex- 
ample, that  a  corolla  is  cruciferous,  is  to  say  that  it 
is  polypetalous  and  regular,  and  also  to  state  the 
number  and  position  of  its  petals.  To  say  that  a 
corolla  is  strap-shaped,  is  the  same  as  saying  that  it 
is  gamopetalous  and  irregular  as  well  as  what  par- 
ticular form  it  has. 


116 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 
FIG.  226. 


SCHEDULE  THIBTY,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  226. 


Names  of  Parts. 


No. 


Description. 


Perianth  ? 


Stamens  ? 


v 


Pistil  ? 


THE    FLOWEK. 


117 


Names  of  Parts.        No.     | 


SCHEDITLE  THIRTY-ONE,  DESCRIBING  FIG.  227. 
Description. 


Calyx  ? 


Corolla? 


%  m. 


Stamens? 


5. 


Pistil? 


118 


THE   FIKST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

EXEKCISE  L. 
Crowns,  Spurs,  and  Nectaries. 


FIG.  228. 


FIG.  229. 


The  CORONA,  or  GROWN,  is  a  scale-like  structure 
(Fig.  228)  on  the  inner  surface  of  corollas,  at  the 
summit  of  the  claw,  or  tube. 

A  SPUR  is  a  tubular  prolongation  of  a  petal  or 
sepal.  Fig.  229. 


FIG.  230. 


FIG.  231. 


Nectary. 


Nectary. 


A  NECTARY  is  a  little  gland  on  the  claw  of  a 
petal  that  secretes  a  sugary  liquid.  In  Fig.  230 
these  glands  are  naked,  while  in  Fig.  231  the  little 
gland  is  covered  by  a  scale. 


FIG.  232. 


THE   FLOWER. 

FIG.  233. 


119 


Corolla  with  Crown. 


Spurred  Calyx  and  Corolla. 

The  statement  proper  in  describing  the  corolla 
(Fig.  232)  is  as  follows : 


Corolla  ? 


,  ofrcobdafe 
at  6a4e. 


We  describe  a  calyx  and  corolla  like  that  shown 
(Fig.  233)  as  follows: 


Calyx  ? 


one 


Corolla? 


4. 


one    wita    6fiat, 

wnaec/  info  ccr^x  4/iuk. 
/      * 


t 


CHAPTEK  Y. 
THE  ROOT. 

EXERCISE  LI. 
Tap-Moots  and  Fibrous  Hoots. 

THERE  are  two  classes  of  roots,  called  tap-roots 
and  fibrous  roots,  which  differ  from  each  other  in  the 
way  shown  in  Figs.  234  and  235. 

FIG.  234.  FIG.  235. 


Tap-root.  Fibrous  Root. 

Fig.  234  represents  a  TAP-BOOT,  which  is  seen  to 
be  simply  a  continuation  of  the  stem  downward. 

In  Fig.  235  the  stem  is  not  continued  downward 
as  a  tap-root,  but  sends  off  rootlets  or  fibres  at  the 
outset.  It  is  hence  called  a  FI'BKOUS  ROOT. 


THE    ROOT. 


121 


EXERCISE  LIT. 
Kinds  of  Tap-Hoot. 

FIG.  237. 


FIG.  238. 


Conical  Root. 


Fusiform  Root. 


Napiform  Root. 


CON'ICAL  ROOTS  are  tap-roots,  which  taper  gradu- 
ally downward,  and  so  are  shaped  like  a  cone.  Fig. 
236. 

FU'SIFORM,  OR  SPINDLE  -  SHAPED  ROOTS,  are  tap- 
roots enlarged  in  the  middle  of  their  length,  and 
tapering  toward  both  ends.  Fig.  237. 

A  NAP'IFORM,  OR  TURNIP-SHAPED  ROOT  (Fig.  238), 
is  a  tap-root,  more  or  less  globular  in  form. 

The  kinds  of  tap-root  illustrated  in  this  exercise 
are  equally  continuations  of  the  stem,  with  that 
shown  in  Fig.  234.  By  reference  to  Fig.  116,  it  will 
be  seen  that  these  stems  are  made  up  of  nodes,  and 
are  just  as  really  stems  as  those  in  which  the  intervals 
between  the  nodes  are  considerable. 


122 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


EXERCISE  LIII. 
Kinds  of  Fibrous  Roots. 

FIG.  239.  FIG.  240. 


FIG.  241. 


Moniliform  Hoot. 


FIG.  242. 


Fasciculated  Root. 


Tubercular  Root. 


THE   ROOT. 


In  MONII/IFORM  KOOTS  (Fig.  240)  some  of  the  fibres 
have  numerous  small  swellings,  that  succeed  each 
other  so  as  to  look  like  a  string  of  beads. 

In  FASCIC'ULATED  BOOTS  (Fig.  241)  the  fibres  be- 
come swollen  along  their  length,  and  look  like  a 
bundle  of  fusiform  roots. 

When  some  of  the  rootlets  of  fibrous  roots  become 
fleshy  and  enlarged,  taking  the  form  shown  in  Fig. 
242,  they  are  called  TUBERCULAR  KOOTS. 


NOTE. — It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  moniliform  root  is 
only  a  fibrous  root,  in  which  regular  portions  of  the  fibres  have 
become  swollen.  When  all  these  swellings  unite  in  one  con- 
tinuous enlargement,  we  have  a  fasciculated  root  (Fig.  241). 
When  the  swellings  are  shortened  and  globular  (Fig.  242),  we 
name  them  tubercular  roots,  but  their  resemblance  to  the 
fibrous  root  is  still  apparent. 

The  questions  about  roots  suggested  by  this  chapter  are, 
first,  is  the  specimen  in  hand  a  tap  or  fibrous  root?  The 
answer  may  not  always  be  easy,  but  the  pupil  will  exercise 
his  best  judgment  upon  it.  If  it  be  fibrous,  however,  say  so ; 
if  any  modification  of  fibrous,  say  which,  and  similarly  if  the 
kind  be  a  tap-root.  For  aid  in  describing  roots,  we  must  refer 
pupils  to  the  exercises  in  plant  description,  which  follow. 

There  is  usually  a  certain  balance  between  the  size  of  the 
root  and  stem  of  a  plant ;  but  sometimes  the  root  is  very  small 
compared  with  the  stem  and  branches,  and  sometimes  it  is 
large.  Roots  may  also  be  loosely  attached  to  the  soil  or  firmly 
planted  therein;  they  may  ">e  spreading  near  the  surface,  or 
may  grow  directly  downward,  and  such  facts  are  worthy  of 
note  in  root  descriptions. 


EXAMPLES  IN  PLANT  DESCRIPTION, 

ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  THE  FOREGOING  EXERCISES. 


PLANT   DESCRIPTION.  125 


Description  of  Fig.  242. 

ROOTS  fibrous. 

LEAVES  radical,  petiolate,  exstipulate,  palmate- 
veined,  acutely  three-lobed;  base  cordate,  surface 
hairy.  Bracts  hairy,  in  a  whorl  of  three  near 
the  flower. 

INFLORESCENCE  solitary,  on  a  slender  hairy  scape.* 

FLOWER.  CALYX;  sepals  8-12,  oblong  spread- 
ing :  COROLLA  none :  STAMENS  many ;  filaments 
threadlike ;  anthers  oval,  two-celled :  PISTIL  ;  car- 
pels many ;  style  very  short ;  stigma  continued  down 
the  inner  face  of  the  style. 

*  Scape,  a  peduncle  which  arises  from  an  underground  stem. 


FIG.  243. 


PLANT   DESCRIPTION.  127 


Description  of  Fig.  243. 

• 
ROOTS  fibrous. 

STEM  a  scaly  bulb. 

LEAVES  radical,  petiolate,  exstipulate,  digitately 
three-fingered ;  leaflets  sessile,  feather-veined,  entire, 
'  obcordate  ;  petiole  long,  slender. 

INFLORESCENCE  a  loose  terminal  umbel. 

FLOWER.  CALYX  ;  sepals  5,  polysepalous  :  COROL- 
LA ;  petals  5,  regular,  polypetalous,  obovate,  mucn 
larger  than  the  sepals :  STAMENS  10,  of  unequal  length, 
hairy ;  filaments  awl-shaped,  flattened  below,  grown 
together  ;  anthers  short,  oval,  two-celled  :  PISTIL  : 
ovary  ovoid,  of  5  united  carpels  ;  styles  free,  hairy  ; 
stigmas  enlarged,  rounded* 


Fia.  244. 


PLANT  DESCRIPTION.  129 


Description  of  Fig.  244. 

BOOTS  fasciculated. 

STEM  erect,  round,  slender,  herbaceous. 

LEAVES  radical  and  cauliue.  Radical  leaves 
twice  ternately  three-fingered  ;  leaflets  petiolulate, 
palmate-veined,  three-lobed  at  the  end,  sub-cordate; 
petiole  long  and  slender.  Cauline  leaves  numer- 
ous, simple,  petiolate,  exstipulate,  formed  like  the 
leaflets  of  the  radical  leaves,  placed  in  a  whorl  at 
the  base  of  the  inflorescence. 

INFLORESCENCE  a  loose  terminal  umbel. 

FLOWER.  CALYX  ;  sepals  6-8,  spreading,  poly- 
sepalous,  regular  :  COROLLA  ;  petals  none  :  STAMENS 
many ;  filaments  thread-like  ;  anthers  two-celled  : 
PISTIL  ;  carpels  many. 


FIG.  345. 


PLANT  DESCRIPTION.  131 


Description  of  Fig.  245. 

ROOTS  branching  tap. 

STEM  erect,  slender,  herbaceous,  round,  hairy. 

LEAVES  cauline,  opposite,  simple,  sessile,  exstipu- 
late,  entire,  ovate-acute. 

INFLORESCENCE  clustered,  terminal,  umbellate. 

FLOWER.  CALYX  ;  sepals  5  :  COROLLA  ;  petals  5, 
obcordate,  spreading :  STAMENS  10 ;  filaments  thread- 
like ;  anthers  oval,  two-celled :  PISTIL  ;  ovary  ovoid, 
consisting  of  five  united  carpels ;  styles  short,  free ; 
stigma  along  the  inner  face  of  the  style. 


Fio  246. 


PLANT  DESCRIPTION.  133 


Description  of  Fig.  246. 

ROOTS  tuberous. 

STEM  smooth,  low,  weak,  slender,  herbaceous, 
round. 

LEAVES  cauline,  opposite,  a  single  pair,  sessile, 
exstipulate*  feather-veined,  entire,  lanceolate. 

INFLORESCENCE  a  loose  definite  raceme. 

FLOWER.  CALYX  ;  sepals  2,  polysepalous,  regu- 
lar :  COROLLA  ;  petals  5,  polypetalous  (or  slightly 
coherent  at  the  short  claws),  spreading ;  stamens  5  ; 
jttaments  threadlike  ;  anthers  oval :  PISTIL  ;  carpels 
3 ;  style  slender,  three-cleft ;  stigma  along  the  inner 
side  of  the  three-cleft  style. 


FIG.  247. 


PLANT  DESCRIPTION.  135 


Description  of  Fig.  247. 

ROOTS  fibrous,  matted,  somewhat  spreading. 

STEM  of  scaly  nodes,  internodes  none. 

LEAVES  radical,  simple,  exstipulate,  peltately  pal- 
mate-veined, wavy,  deeply  two-lobed,  shut  sinus  at 
base  ;  petiole  long,  round,  rather  erect. 

INFLORESCENCE  solitary,  on  a  smooth,  naked  scape. 

FLOWER.  CALYX  ;  sepals  4,  polysepalous,  oblong : 
COROLLA;  petals  8,  polypetalous,  regular,  oblong, 
spreading :  STAMENS  8 ;  filaments  threadlike,  shorter 
than  anther;  anthers  two-celled,  oblong:  PISTIL; 
carpels  2 ;  style  short ;  stigma  spreading,  two-lobed. 


Fro.  248. 


PLANT  DESCRIPTION.  137 


Description  of  Fig.  248. 

ROOTS  fibrous,  growing  from  the  entire  under-side 
of  the  stem. 

STEM  creeping  below  the  ground. 

LEAF  radical,  petiolate,  exstipulate,  wavy-dentate, 
palmate- veined,  slightly  reniform,  obtusely  seven- 
lobed,  sinuses  rounded,  nearly  closed  ;  petiole  half- 
round,  channelled. 

INFLORESCENCE  solitary,  on  a  smooth,  slender 
scape. 

FLOWER.  CALYX  ;  sepals  $,  ovate,  regular : 
COROLLA  ;  petals  8,  polypetalous,  regular,  obovate- 
oblong,  spreading :  STAMENS  many,  shorter  than  the 
petals ;  filaments  short,  threadlike ;  anthers  oblong, 
two-celled  :  PISTIL  ;  ovary  oblong,  of  two  carpels  ; 
styles  united  in  a  column  ;  stigma  two-lobed. 


FIG.  249. 


PLANT  DESCRIPTION.  139 


Description  of  Fig.  249. 

KOOTS  fasciculated. 

STEM  slender,  weak,  round,  herbaceous,  hairy. 

LEAVES  radical  and  cauline.  Radical  leaves, 
petiolate,  exstipulate,  deeply  twice  ternately  lobed; 
petioles  long,  hairy.  Cauline  leaves  sessile  alter- 
nate, shaped  like  the  radical  leaves,  but  much 
smaller. 

INFLORESCENCE  solitary,  terminal. 

FLOWER.  CALYX  ;  sepals  5,  polysepalous,  regu- 
lar, spreading :  COROLLA  ;  petals  5,  polypetalous, 
regular,  oval,  spreading:  STAMENS  many;  filaments 
threadlike  ;  anthers  short,  two-celled  :  PISTIL  ;  car- 
pels many  ;  styles  very  short  or  absent ;  stigma 
inner  and  upper  part  of  carpel  or  style. 


FIG. 


PLANT  DESCRIPTION.  141 


Description  of  Fig.  25O. 

ROOTS  moniliform. 

STEM  erect,  slender,  herbaceous,  round. 

LEAVES  radical  and  cauline,  ternately  compound. 
Cauline  leaves  alternate  ;  leaflets  lobed  ;  petioles 
spreading  at  base. 

INFLORESCENCE  solitary,  terminal. 

FLOWER.  CALYX  ;  sepals  5,  polysepalous,  regular, 
spreading,  ovate  :  COROLLA  ;  petals,  none :  STAMENS 
numerous  ;  filaments  threadlike  ;  anthers  oblong  : 
PISTIL  ;  carpels  many ;  stigma  sessile  on  the  upper, 
inner  face  of  carpel. 


CHAPTEE   VI. 
THE  SEED. 

EXERCISE  LIV. 
Parts  of  the  Seed. 

WE  now  pass  to  another  class  of  observations,  in 
which,  besides  noting  new  parts  of  plants,  you  will 
also  have  to  watch  the  changes  which  take  place  in 
those  parts. 

PREPARE  for  the  study  of  seeds  by  planting  all 
the  kinds  you  can  get  that  are  large  enough  for  easy 
examination. 

The  seeds  of  the  pumpkin,  squash,  four-o'clock, 
bean,  pea,  apple,  Indian  corn,  oats,  and  barley,  are 
good  examples  for  the  purpose.  Plant  two  or  three 
dozens  of  each  sort,  one  inch  deep,  in  a  box  of  soil  or 
sawdust,  which  must  be  kept  warm  and  moist.  Put 
the  different  kinds  in  rows  by  themselves,  and  mark 
each  row,  so  that,  when  you  want  any  particular  one, 
you  can  get  it  without  mistake.* 

You  should  also  be  provided  with  a  blank-book 

*  If  pupils  cannot  get  time  to  prepare  for  these  exercises 
out  of  school-hours,  they  should  be  encouraged  to  do  it  during 
school-time. 


THE   SEED.  143 

in  which  to  write  the  results  of  study.  Such  a  note- 
book is  easily  made  by  twice  folding  enough  sheet- 
paper  to  allow  a  page  to  each  kind  of  seed  you  have 
planted.  Write  the  name  of  a  kind,  as  pea,  oat,  etc., 
on  each  successive  page,  till  all  are  inserted. 

When  your  seeds  have  soaked  for  a  day  or  two 
in  the  wet  earth,  take  a  bean  from  the  box  and  com- 
pare it  with  one  that  has  not  been  planted. 

How  has  it  changed  in  appearance  ? 

Cut  it  in  two  and  see  whether,  like  a  piece  of 
chalk,  it  looks  alike  outside  and  inside,  or  whether 
the  parts  are  unlike. 

Has  it  a  skin  or  shell  that  you  can  loosen  ? 

Take  a  second  bean  from  the  box,  cut  carefully 
around  it,  and  try  to  peel  off  the  outer  part. 

FIG.  251. 


Body. 


SEED-COAT,  OR  INTEG'UMENT. — The  skin  or  shell 
around  the  outside  of  a  seed. 

BODY,  KERNEL,  OR  NU'CLEUS.  —  The  substance 
within  the  seed-coat. 

Compare  your  specimen  with  Fig.  251. 

Can  you  separate  the  seed-coat  from  the  body  of 
the  bean  as  it  is  seen  to  be  separated  in  the  picture  ? 

Now  take  a  pea  from  your  box  and  see  if  it  is 
made  up  of  parts. 


144:  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

Has  it  a  seed-coat  ?  Is  there  a  kernel  or  body 
within  the  seed-coat  ? 

Try  a  pumpkin-seed.  Compare  the  coat  of  a 
pumpkin-seed  with  that  of  the  pea  or  bean. 

Are  they  alike  in  thickness  ?  in  hardness  ?  in 
color?  in  transparency?  Name  all  the  differences 
you  see  between  them. 

In  the  same  way,  take  up  and  examine,  one  after 
another,  some  seeds  from  each  of  the  rows.  Find 
their  parts,  and  compare  the  parts  of  one  kind  of  seed 
with  those  of  another  kind. 

If  you  are  not  able  at  first  readily  to  separate  a 
seed  into  distinct  portions,  do  not  hastily  conclude 
that  it  is  without  them.  Let  it  lie  in  its  warm,  wet 
bed  a  while  longer,  and  then  try  again.* 

JSTow  write  in  your  note-book  just  what  you  have 
discovered  about  the  parts  of  seeds.  For  instance  : 
if  at  the  top  of  the  first  page  you  have  written  ~becm, 
on  the  line  beneath  you  now  write  the  question, 
Parts  ?  and  the  answer  which  you  have  found  to  this 
question — thus : 

Parts  f  Seed-coat.  Body.  Coat,  thin,  skinny  • 
or,  on  the  page  devoted  to  the  apple-seed,  you  write 


*  Much  that  is  important  in  their  experiments,  children  will 
fail  to  see,  and  they  will  fancy  they  see  much  that  does  not 
exist.  Their  omissions,  misinterpretations,  and  difficulties,  can 
be  dealt  with  in  many  ways,  but  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  for  nicety  of  experiment,  and  accuracy  of  statement, 
should  never  lead  to  discouraging  criticism.  To  keep  the  child 
happily  busy  with  his  growing  plants  is  the  main  thing,  and 
all  degrees  of  awkwardness  and  imperfection  in  childish  per- 
formance should  be  tolerated. 


THE    SEED.  145 

Parts  ?    Seed-coat.    Body.     Coat,  woody,  brown, 
thin  ; 

or,  on  the  page  for  pumpkin-seed  you  say 

Parts  f    Seed-coat.     Body.     Coat,  shelly,   thick, 
limber. 

Write  on  all  the  pages  of  your  note-book  in  this 
way,  and  keep  it  at  hand  for  reference. 


EXERCISE   LV. 
farts  of  the  Body,  or  Kernel. 

WHEN  you  have  carefully  examined  all  the  seeds 
you  planted  to  find  the  parts  that  make  them  up,  you 
will  be  ready  to  study  one  of  these  by  itself.  After 
taking  off  the  skin  or  coat  of  a  seed,  look  closely  at 
the  body  of  it.  Begin  with  a  well-soaked  seed  of 
Indian  corn. 

FIG.  252. 


Compare  it  with  Fig.  252. 

Is  your  seed  narrower  at  one  end  than  the  other  ? 
Are  the  two  sides  of  it  alike  ?  Is  there  a  little  pointed 
or  rounded  figure  to  be  seen  on  one  side  ? 

Remove  the  skin  and  look  carefully  at  the  figured 
side  of  your  specimen.  Can  you  sea  a  thick,  lumpy 
body  like  the  one  marked  a  in  the  picture  ? 


14:6  THE    FIRST    BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

Try,  with  a  dull  knife  or  the  finger-nail,  to  pry 
this  lump  out  of  its  bed.  If  the  seed  is  soaked  to  its 
centre,  you  can  easily  do  this.  Look  carefully  at  the 
hole  it  leaves.  Is  not  its  surface  smooth  ?  Do  you 
see  any  spot  where  the  lump  seems  to  have  been 
grown  to  the  other  part,  and  to  have  broken  away 
when  you  took  it  out  ? 

Compare  the  parts  you  have  got  with  Fig.  253. 

FI&.  253. 


Embryo. 

EM'BKYO. — The  young  plant  contained  in  a  seed. 
ALBU'MEN,  EN'DOSPERM. — The  material  in  which 
the  embryo  is  embedded. 

"What  names  are  given  to  the  two  parts  of  the 
body  of  a  seed  of  Indian  corn  ? 

"Which  is  the  embryo  in  your  specimen  ?  Which 
is  the  albumen  ? 

Now  examine  the  kernel  of  a  pea  or  bean.  Can 
you  separate  this  into  two  parts  without  breaking  it 
somewhere  ? 

Compare  it  with  Fig.  254. 

FIG.  254. 


Embryo. 


THE   SEED.  147 

What  name  is  given  to  the  entire  kernel  ?  What 
part,  found  in  the  Indian  corn,  is  missing  here  ? 

Look  at  the  body  of  a  seed  of  four-o'clock  and  see 
how  many  and  what  parts  it  has  ?  Look  also  at  the 
body  of  a  pumpkin-seed. 

Examine  the  kernel  of  each  of  the  kinds  of  seed 
you  have  planted,  and  observe  which  consist  of  em- 
bryo alone,  and  which  are  part  embryo  and  part 
albumen. 

At  the  same  time,  write  in  your  note-book,  as 
before,  the  results  of  observation.  For  'example,  to 
the  question,  Parts  of  the  body  ?  write  for  Indian 
corn,  Parts  of  body?  Albumen.  Embryo.  For 
Pea.  Parts  of  body  f  Embryo. 


EXERCISE   LVL 
Parts  of  the  Embryo. 

TAKE  out  of  the  soil  a  bean  which  has  begun  to 
sprout.  Remove  the  seed-coat,  and  let  the  parts  of 
the  embryo  separate,  as  seen  in  Figs.  255  and  256. 

FIG.  255. 
Plumule.  Radicle 

Cotyledon...       __^          Cotyledon. 

Cotyledon.  I  1  Radicle. 


COTYLE'DON. — The  bulky  first  leaf  or  leaves  of  the 
embryo— more  or  less  formed  before,  the  growth  of 
the  seed  begins. 


148  THE   FIKST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

RAD'ICLE. — The  lower,  or  root-end,  of  the  embryo. 
PLU'MULE. — The  first — the  terminal  bud — the  up- 
per end  of  the  embryo. 

GERMINA'TION. — The  beginning  of  growth  in  a  seed. 

Read  the  names  of  the  parts  of  the  embryo  given 
in  Figs.  255  and  256.  Look  at  the  definitions  of  these 
Words.  Compare  your  specimen  with  the  figures,  and 
point  out  its  Cotyledons ;  its  Eadicle ;  its  Plumule. 
Handle  your  embryo  with  care,  for  it  breaks  easily. 
Has  its  radicle  begun  to  put  forth  roots  ? 

Take  from  your  box  a  vigorous  seed  of  Indian 

FIG.  257. 


Plumule. 


corn  in  which  the  roots  have  begun  to  grow,  and 
compare  it  with  Fig.  257. 

Separate  the  embryo  and  albumen,  and,  if  it  has 
grown  as  much  as  the  one  pictured  above,  you  may 
easily  find  the  cotyledon,  the  plumule,  and  the  radicle. 

When  you  are  sure  that  you  have  found  the  radi- 


THE    SEED.  149 

cle  or  root-end  of  your  embryo,  that  you  know  which 
part  is  cotyledon,  and  which  plumule,  take  another 
seed  of  the  same  kind,  but  less  grown — one  where  the 
root-end  of  the  embryo  has  scarcely  begun  to  swell — 
and  see  if  you  can  find  the  parts. 


Fio.  258. 
;   Plumule. 


Cotyledon.     [   ,§\ \ Plumule. 

Badicle. 

Fig.  258  represents  such  an  embryo  with  the  parts 
shown. 

Point  out  and  name  the  parts  of  the  embryo  of  an 
apple-seed ;  of  a  pumpkin-seed ;  and  of  each  of  your 
specimens  successively,  as  in  former  exercises.  Which 
of  your  seeds  has  the  largest  plumule  before  growth 
begins  ?  Have  you  any  in  which  the  embryo  has  at 
first  no  plumule  at  all  ? 

Have  you  failed  to  find  cotyledons  in  any  em- 
bryo looked  at  ?  * 

*  If  these  experiments  with  seeds  are  made  as  early  as  April, 
in  this  climate,  the  children  who  have  made  them  will  be  ready 
for  more  extended  observations  when  planting  in  the  garden 
begins.  Most  garden-seeds  are  too  small  to  be  separated  into 
parts  by  young  children.  But,  when  growth  begins,  their  parts 
enlarge,  and  a  child,  who  has  before  studied  larger  seeds,  will 
be  able  to  identify  the  radicle,  cotyledons,  and  plumule,  without 
difficulty.  In  the  kitchen-garden,  a  universal  appendage  of 
country-houses,  the  sprouting  of  the  radish,  onion,  beet,  parsnip, 
lettuce,  tomato,  carrot,  cabbage,  cucumber,  etc.,  will  furnish  an 
excellent  continuation  of  the  study  of  seeds. 


150 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


As  the  number  of  your  observations  increases,  and 
their  character  varies,  you  will  see  more  and  more 
the  value  of  your  notes  recording  them. 

To  the  question  of  this  exercise,  Parts  of  Embryo  ? 
you  give  the  answers,  as  before,  from  direct  observa- 
tion of  the  structure  of  the  embryo  itself.  If  some 
seeds  give  uncertain  appearances,  wait  till  growth 
has  proceeded  a  little  further  before  you  decide  about 
them.  By  premature  judgments  you  may  fill  your 
note-book  with  errors  which  you  will  be  compelled  to 
erase. 


EXERCISE   LYII. 
Monocotyledons  and  Dicotyledons. 


FIG.  259. 


FIG.  260. 


Cotyledon. 


Cotyledon. 


Cotyledon. 


A  MONOCOTYLED'ONOUS  embryo  has  one  cotyledon 
or  seed-leaf  (Fig.  259). 


THE   SEED.  151 

A  DICOTYLED'ONOUS  embryo  has  two  cotyledons 
or  seed-leaves  (Fig.  260). 

These  are  long,  hard  words,  hard  to  pronounce, 
and  hard  to  spell.  But  they  are  very  necessary  words 
in  describing  seeds.  You  can  soon  learn  them. 

Go  over  the  seeds  you  have  planted,  and  point 
out  the  dicotyledons.  Show  the  two  thick  leaves 
that  were  packed  within  the  seed-coat  when  the  seed 
ripened  ? 

Are  any  of  your  seeds  monocotyledonous  ?  If 
so,  which? 

Figs.  259  and  260  were  drawn  from  plants  that 
had  grown  a  little.  When  your  seeds  have  also  grown 
a  little,  compare  them  one  after  another  with  these 
pictures.  Look  at  your  young  bean-plant.  Find  the 
first  node  above  the  cotyledons.  How  many  leaves 
are  growing  there  ?  how  many  at  the  first  node  of 
the  corn-stem  ?  how  many  in  each  of  your  growing 
seeds  ? 

Observe  whether  the  cotyledons  in  all  cases  rise 
into  the  light  and  air.  Observe  whether  all  cotyle- 
dons are  shaped  alike,  and  also  whether  they  resem- 
ble the  true  leaves  of  the  plant.  Write  carefully  in 
your  note-book  the  decision  you  have  made  in  this 
exercise  about  each  of  your  seeds.  You  will  have 
occasion  to  refer  to  it  as  soon  as  your  plants  have  put 
forth  perfect  full-grown  leaves.* 

*  A  word  of  caution  may  not  here  be  amiss.  There  is  danger 
that  the  sympathy  of  teachers  with  bright  and  interested  pupils 
will  lead  them  to  tell  in  advance  what  children  can  find  out  for 
themselves  by  continued  observation.  The  connection  between 
number  of  cotyledons  and  venation  is  an  instance  of  such  temp- 


152  THE   FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

tation.  This  relation  is  an  impressive  one,  and  prominent  in 
classification ;  but  there  is  no  need  of  haste  in  getting  to  it.  By- 
and-by,  when  the  leaves  of  his  growing  plants  are  well  developed, 
by  the  aid  of  his  note-book,  the  pupil  might  be  put  in  the  way  of 
discovery,  by  asking  him  to  make  a  list  of  his  monocotyledons, 
and  to  give  their  venation  in  each  case.  Let  him  do  the  same 
with  his  dicotyledons.  He  will  now  see  a  perfect  uniformity 
of  relation  in  a  few  cases,  and  will  be  curious  to  know  if  it  is 
everywhere  constant.  He  will  thus  arrive  at  the  induction  by 
his  own  observation. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
WOODY  PLANTS. 


EXERCISE   LYIII. 
Their  Different  Kinds. 

WHAT  do  you  name  all  the  soft,  fragile  plants  that 
die  down  to  the  ground  in  winter  ?  *  Is  there  any 
name  for  all  woody  plants  ?  Do  you  know  of  any 
woody  plants.that  are  not  trees  ?  If  so,  what  do  you 
call  them  ?  "What  is  the  difference  between  a  young 
tree  and  a  bush  ?  Between  a  bush  and  a  shrub  ? 

The  following  pictures  and  definitions  are  given 

FIG.  261. 


Tree. 


See  page  75. 


154:  THE   FIRST    BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

to  help  you  in  distinguishing  one  group  of  woody 
plants  from  another.  After  carefully  looking  them 
over,  you  should  go  through  the  streets  and  the  fields, 
and  whenever  you  see  a  woody  plant,  decide  whether 
it  is  a  tree,  shrub,  bush,  under-shrub,  or  vine.  It'  you 
take  with  you  a  companion  who  is  interested  in  the 
same  pursuit,  it  will  be  all  the  better. 

Although  trees  vary  much  in  size,  height,  and 
shape,  and  are  often  not  nearly  so  tree-like  as  the  one 
represented  by  Fig.  261,  yet  it  is  not  easy  to  mistake 
them  when  full  grown.  If  you  are  doubtful  whether 
a  particular  plant  is  a  tree  or  shrub,  remember  that, 
when  a  full-grown  woody  plant,  less  than  fifteen  feet 
high,  is  slender,  and  perhaps  has  several  stems  start- 
ing together  at  or  near  the  ground,  as  seen  in  Fig. 
262,  it  is  called  a  SHEUB. 


Fm.  262. 


Shrub. 


When   a  full-grown,  woody  plant,  with  several 
stems,  is  not  more  than  five  feet  high,  it  is  a  BUSH. 


WOODY   PLANTS.  155 


FIG.  263. 


Bush. 

And  when  only  two  or  three  feet  high,  whatever 
its  shape,  it  is  called  an  TJNDER-SHKUB.  Slender, 
woody  plants  that  cannot  hold  themselves  up,  but 
depend  on  other  objects  for  support,  or  trail  along 
the  ground,  are  called  VINES. 

Besides  this  separation  of  woody  plants  into  groups 
depending  upon  size  and  shape,  they  are  again  divided 
into  two  sorts,  called  Evergreen  and  Deciduous. 

EVERGREEN  trees,  shrubs,  etc.,  keep  their  foliage 
all  the  year  round. 

DECTD'UOUS  trees,  shrubs,  etc.,  lose  their  foliage  in 
winter. 

So  that  in  winter  it  is  very  easy  to  tell  Evergreens 
from  deciduous  plants.  Look  carefully  at  the  foliage 
of  Evergreens,  and  see  if  it  resembles  that  of  Decidu- 
ous trees. 


156  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE   LIX. 
Parts  of  a   Tree. 

FIG.  264. 


Trunk. 


TRUNK. — The  main  stem  of  a  tree. 
HEAD. — The  branching  top  of  a  tree. 

Observe  the  varying  lengths  of  the  trunks  in  the 
trees  about  you.  Measure  the  size  around  their 
trunks  at  different  heights  from  the  ground.  Judge 
as  well  as  you  can  at  what  distance  from  the  ground 
the  lowest  limb  starts  from  the  trunk.  Then  test 
your  judgment  by  measuring. 

If  you  call  the  branches  that  start  from  the  trunk 
primary,  the  branches  which  these  put  forth  may  be 
called  secondary  branches,  and  those  given  off  next 
would  be  tertiary  branches.  In  observing  the  heads 
of  trees,  fix  your  attention  upon  a  primary  branch, 
and  see  if  you  can  find  these  divisions.  Observe 
whether  the  tertiary  branches  bear  still  other  branches. 


WOODY    PLANTS. 
FIG.  265. 


157 


Crown. 


Caadcx. 


CAUDEX  OR  STOCK. — An  unbranched  trunk  pro- 
duced by  the  terminal  bud  alone  (Fig.  265). 

CKOWN. — The  collection  of  leaves  at  the  top  of  a 
caudex. 


158 


THE   FIRST  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 


EXEKCISE   LX. 
Parts  of  the  Trunk, 

FIG.  266. 


Bark. 


Pith. 


Wood 

In  living  trees  there  grows  eacli  year  a  ring  of 
wood  between  the  old  wood  and  the  bark,  and  by 
counting  the  rings  you  can  tell  the  age  of  the  tree. 
Fig.  266  is  a  picture  of  the  end  of  a  tree-trunk.  A 
dark  and  light  streak,  taken  together,  represent  a 
yearly  ring  of  wood.  Can  you  tell  how  many  years 
it  was  in  growing  ?  When  you  see  saw-logs,  find  out 
their  ages  by  counting  the  rings.  Observe  whether 

O  •/  O 

these  annual  layers  are  always  of  the  same  thickness. 
Notice  whether  the  wood  of  a  tree,  from  the  centre 
to  the  circumference,  is  all  of  one  color. 


WOODY   PLANTS. 

EXERCISE   LXI. 
Kinds  of  Trunk. 

Fio.  268. 


159 


Indefinite  Trunli. 


Definite  Trunk. 


AN  INDEFINITE  TBTJNK  is  one  in  which  the  trunk 
runs  through  to  the  top,  the  terminal  bud  growing 
on  from  year  to  year  with  more  vigor  than  any  of  the 
branches. 

IN  A  DEFINITE  TRUNK  the  stem  breaks  up  into 
branches,  and  so  disappears,  as  seen  in  Fig.  268. 

Have  apple-trees  definite  trunks  ? 

Have  pine-trees  definite  or  indefinite  trunks  ? 


160 


THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

EXERCISE   LXII. 
Questions  about  Trees. 

FIG.  269. 


WOODY    PLANTS. 


161 


Pia.  270. 


FIG.  271. 


162 


THE   FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 
FIG.  272. 


WOODY    PLANTS. 


163 


FIG.  273. 


164  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OP   BOTANY. 

What  is  the  attitude  of  the  trunk  in  Fig.  269  ? 

What  is  the  form  of  the  head  ? 

Which  are  the  longest — the  upper,  lower,  or 
middle  branches  ? 

What  is  the  direction  of  the  branches  ? 

Are  the  branches  much  subdivided  ? 

What  proportion  of  the  trunk  is  below  the  lowest 
branches  ? 

Observe  whether  field-trees  and  forest-trees  differ 
in  this  respect. 

Answer  the  same  questions  in  regard  to  Fig.  270. 
Fig.  271.  Fig.  272.  Fig.  273. 

Which  of  these  pictures  represent  definite  trunks? 

Which  indefinite  trunks  ? 

If  the  head  of  a  tree  is  cone-shaped,  which  of  its 
branches  are  longest  ? 

If  the  head  is  round,  which  are  longest  ? 

Mention  all  the  differences  you  see  between  Figs. 
269  and  270. 

Between  Figs.  269  and  271. 

Between  Figs.  269  and  272. 

Between  Figs.  269  and  273. 

Which  of  the  pictures  shows  the  most  compact 
head? 

Are    its  branches   more    subdivided    than    the 

others  ? 

% 

Now  that  you  are  somewhat  acquainted  with  the 
woody  plants  of  your  neighborhood,  find  among 
them  an  evergreen  and  observe  it  carefully  through- 
out the  year.  Describe,  in  your  note-book,  its  ap- 
pearance in  winter.  Watch  it  in  spring,  and  note 


WOODY   PLANTS.  165 

the  changes  produced  on  it  by  the  warm  weather. 
See  if  any  of  its  foliage  ever  falls ;  or  if  it  changes 
color  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Watch  for  its  flowers 
and  fruit.  Observe  the  appearance  of  its  bark,  and 
whether  it  looks  the  same  in  different  parts  of  the 
tree. 

Make  and  record  similar  observations  upon  a 
deciduous  tree.  Describe  its  winter  aspect.  What 
time  does  it  put  forth  leaves  ?  When  does  it  flower  ? 
Does  its  foliage  change  in  color  after  it  is  full  grown  ? 
If  so,  how  2  When  does  it  fall  ?  Compare  the  bark 
of  its  trunk  with  that  of  its  twigs.*  Compare  its 
bark  with  that  of  an  evergreen. 

In  the  same  way  watch  the  progress  of  a  fruit- 
tree,  after  carefully  observing  its  appearance  before 
growth  in  the  spring  begins. 

Every  bush,  shrub,  and  tree,  passes  each  year 
through  a  succession  of  striking  changes,  which  very 
few  people  ever  observe.  Let  it  be  your  purpose  to 
see  them  all. 

*  TWIGS. — The  remote  ends  of  the  branches. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
THE  LEAF-BUD. 


EXERCISE  LXITI. 
Parts  of  the  Leaf-bud. 

FIG.  271  FIG.  275.  -         FIG.  276. 


Leaves. 


a.  Grow- 
ing point. 

Scales. 


BUD-SCALES. — The  covering  of  winter  buds  (Figs. 
274,  275). 

GEOWING-POINT. — The  soft  extremity  of  the  stem 
at  the  centre  of  the  bud,  and  enclosed  in  the  young 
unexpanded  leaves  and  the  bud-scales  a  (Fig.  276). 

UNEXPANDED  LEAVES  are  found  in  buds,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  276. 

The  time  to  study  bud-scales  is  in  early  spring, 
before  the  buds  begin  to  swell.  At  this  season  gather 
buds  from  all  the  trees  and  shrubs  within  your  reach. 

Observe  whether  the  branches  from  which  they 
are  taken  have  terminal  buds. 


THE   LEAF-BUD.  167 

Are  any  of  these  buds  without  a  protective  cover- 
ing to  the  growing-point  ? 

Observe  in  each  case  whether  the  scales  are  mem- 
branous, waxy,  gummy,  lined  with  down,  wool,  or 
dense  hairs,  or  varnished  upon  the  exterior. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  gummy  matter,  varnish, 
and  wax,  around  the  bud  ? 

Of  what  use  are  the  woolly,  downy,  and  hairy 
linings  of  the  bud-scales  ? 

What  separates  the  gummed  bud-scales  when 
growth  begins  ? 

When  you  are  familiar  with  the  winter  aspect  of 
the  buds  upon  the  trees  around,  you  will  be  interested 
in  their  unfolding.  Observe  what  becomes  of  the 
scales  on  each  of  the  trees  you  have  examined.  Scales 
may  be  changed  into  other  parts,  or  they  may  fall  off 
all  together.  Observe  these  changes.  Notice  the  scars 
left  by  their  fall. 

PET'IOLAR  scales  are  formed  from  the  petiole. 

STIP'ULAR  scales  are  formed  from  the  stipules. 

FOLIA'CEOUS  scales  are  formed  from  the  blade  of  the 
leaf. 


EXERCISE  LXIY. 
Vernation. 

VERNATION  is  the  way  in  which  leaves  are  folded, 
rolled,  and  arranged,  in  the  leaf-bud. 

Observe  the  buds  closely  as  warm  weather  ap- 
proaches. When  they  are  just  opening  out,  examine 
them  to  find  the  various  ways  in  which  the  young 
leaves  are  folded  or  rolled.  If  you  are  watchful  at 


168  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

this  time,  you  will  be  sure  to  find  them  at  a  moment 
when  the  growing  leaves  have  not  yet  smoothed  out 
the  shapes  they  had  while  in  the  bud. 

Fresh  buds  are  also  constantly  appearing  through- 
out the  growing  season,  at  the  ends  of  stems  and 
shoots*  and  in  the  axils  of  leaves.  Observe  the  parts 
of  such  summer  buds,  and  learn  in  what  ways  they 
differ  from  winter  buds.f 

WAYS  IN  WHICH  LEAVES  ARE  FOLDED  AND  ROLLED 
IN  THE  BUD. 

FIG.  277. 


BEC'LINATE,  or  INFLEXED'. — Folded  from  apex  to 
base  (Fig.  277). 

*  SHOOT.    Any  fresh  branch. 

t  Although  the  science  of  the  folding  and  arrangement  of 
the  parts  of  buds  has  been  called  vernation  (from  vernalis, 
spring-time),  yet  its  study  need  not  be  restricted  to  the  spring 
season.  All  the  features  of  buds  illustrated  here  may  be  found 
equally  well  in  summer  upon  growing  plants. 


THE    LEAF-BUD. 


169 


Fio.273. 


C  i  R'C  i  N  A  T  E. — Rolled 
from   apex  to  base    (Fig. 

278). 


Fio.  279. 


CONDTTPLICATE.— Folded 
along  the  mid-rib  so  that 
the  two  halves  are  applied 
to  each  other  (Fig.  279). 


FIG.  280. 


FIG.  281. 


PLI'CATE. — 
Folded  like  a 
fan  (Figs.  280 
and  281). 


CONVOLUTE. 

—  With  the 
leaf  rolled 
spirally  s  o 
that  one  edge 
is  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  coil 
and  one  out- 
side (Fig. 
282). 


THE    LEAF-BUD. 
FIG.  283. 


171 


IN'VOLUTE. 
,—With  both 
edges  rolled 
inward  to- 
ward the  mid- 
rib (Fig.  283). 


FIG.  231 


REV'OLUTE. 
—With  both 
edges  rolled 
outward  to- 
ward the  mid- 
rib (Fig.  284). 


172  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

When  leaves  are  neither  folded  nor  rolled  in  the 
bud,  they  are  said  to  be  FLAT. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  LEAVES  IN  THE  BUD. 

By  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  in  a  bud  is 
meant  the  ways  in  which  they  are  placed  in  relation 
to  each  other.  For  instance,  Fig.  285  shows  what 
is  called  the  equita/nt  arrangement. 

FIG.  285. 


EQ'UITAOT. — "When  opposite  con  duplicate  leaves 
overlap  each  other  at  the  base,  as  seen  in  Fig.  285, 
the  arrangement  is  called  equitant. 

Leaves  are  always  arranged  in  one  or  other  of  the 
two  ways  called  valvate  and  imbricate. 

The  YAL'VATE  arrangement  is  seen  when  the  edges 
of  corresponding  leaves  barely  touch  each  other. 

The  IM'BKICATE  arrangement  is  seen  when  the 
edges  of  the  leaves  overlap  each  other.  Fig.  285 
shows  an  imbricate  arrangement. 


THE   LEAF-BUD.  173 

The  directions  for  observing  the  folding  and  roll- 
ing of  leaves  apply  also  to  the  study  of  their  arrange- 
ment. But  there  are  several  different  ways  in  which 
imbricate  leaves  are  placed,  and  it  is  sometimes  quite 
difficult  to  make  them  out.  The  best  way  to  study 
the  arrangement  of  leaves  in  the  bud  is  to  cut  off  the 
top  of  the  bud  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  look  down  on 
the  cut  edges,  which  will  show  not  only  whether  the 
leaves  are  imbricate  or  valvate,  but  also,  if  they  are 
imbricate,  the  particular  mode  of  overlapping.  In 
most  cases,  however,  a  magnifying-glass  is  needed  to 
show  the  details  of  a  complex  arrangement,  and  so 
we  shall  leave  the  illustration  of  this  branch  of  ver- 
nation to  be  taken  up  again  in  the  Second  Book  of 
Botany. 

In  your  notes  about  trees  you  can  now  include 
your  discoveries  about  the  buds  of  the  particular 
kinds  of  woody  plants  you  are  studying. 

Answer  the  following  questions  in  regard  to  each 
sort  by  frequent  observations  made  during  their 
growth.  Answer  them  in  writing  in  your  book  for 
each  of  the  woody  plants  that  you  have  selected  to 
study  throughout  the  year. 

QUESTIONS  ON  THE  BUDS  OF  A  PLANT. 

When  do  the  buds  begin  to  swell  ? 
How  long  are  they  in  unfolding  ? 
Are  they  naked,  scaly,  woolly,  or  gummy  ? 
Can  you  find  the  growing  point  within  them  ? 
Is  there  any  appearance  of  leaves  within  them  [ 
What  are  the  size,  color,  and  structure,  of  the  bud 
before  swelling  commences  ? 


THE    FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

How  long  is  it  from  the  first  bursting  of  the  bud 
till  the  leaves  are  full  grown  ? 

What  changes  of  color  do  the  leaves  undergo 
during  growth  ? 

Are  the  first-formed  leaves  as  large  as  those  formed 
later  in  the  season  ? 

What  becomes  of  the  bud-scales  as  the  buds  unfold  1 


CHAPTER    IX. 
STEM  AND  ROOT. 

EXERCISE   LXV. 
What    are    Hoots? 

CAREFULLY  pull  up  a  buttercup,  or  any  common 
plant,  and  rinse  away  the  dirt  from  the  roots. 

Take  the  stem-schedule  on  page  63,  and  answer 
its  questions  as  if  they  were  asked  concerning  these 
roots. 

Look  at  the  tip  of  the  stem,  or  of  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  stem,  and  compare  it  with  the  tip  of 
a  rootlet. 

What  is  the  difference  between  them  ? 

What  appendages  has  the  stem  that  you  do  not 
find  on  the  root  ? 

How  do  the  root  and  stem  differ  in  color  ? 

How  in  direction  of  growth  ? 

Where  do  branches  start  from  on  the  stem  ? 


THE    STEM   AND   BOOT. 


175 


Are  they  regular  or  irregular  I 

Where  do  the  root-branches  start  from  ? 

Pull  up  another  plant  and  examine  the  root  and 
stem  in  the  same  way.  Do  you  find  the  same  differ- 
ences as  before? 

Examine  as  many  plants  as  you  can,  by  thus  com- 
paring the  root  and  stem,  so  as  to  find  out  for  your- 
self the  differences  between  them. 

Get  a  potato  that  has  begun  to  sprout,  and  observe 
its  surface  ? 

Have  you  seen  any  thing  like  this  upon  roots  ? 

Did  the  potato  grow  under  or  above  the  ground  ? 

Have  you  ever  found  buds  upon  roots  ? 


EXERCISE   LXVI. 
Tubers,  Hulks,  Corms,  Rhizoma, 

FIG.  286. 


TU'BERS,  thickened  portions  of  underground  stems. 


1T6 


TIIE   FLEST   BOOK   OF   B0TAOT, 
FIG,  287. 


CORM. — When  the  base  of  an  underground  stem 
is  abruptly  thickened  so  as  to  resemble  a  tuber,  it  is 
called  a  corm  (Fig.  287). 


FIG.  283. 


FIG.  289. 


THE   STEM  AND  BOOT.  177 

BULB. — A  mass  of  thickened,  scale-like  leaves, 
growing  from  a  flat  or  conical  solid  base,  from  the 
under  side  of  which,  roots  are  given  off  (Figs. 
288,  289). 

RHIZO'MA. — A  stem  more  or  less  covered  by  the 
soil,  which  gives  off  buds  above,  and  roots  below,  as 


seen  in  Fig.  290. 


FIG.  290. 


Point  out  the  root  and  the  stem  of  an  onion  ? 

Is  the  bulb  a  stem  or  root  ? 

Examine  a  growing  hyacinth,  and  find  the  root 
and  the  stem. 

"Which  is  the  root  and  which  the  stem  in  a  lily  ? 

Look  for  sweet-flag,  blue-flag,  peppermint,  knot- 
grass, Solomon's-seal,  and  try  the  stem-schedule  as 
before,  upon  their  entire  underground  portions.  You 
will  find  flag  in  marshes  and  by  the  water's  side ; 
Solomon's-seal,  trillium,  artichoke,  etc.,  in  meadows 
and  old  gardens.  If  you  cannot  at  once  get  abundant 
specimens  illustrating  this  exercise,  put  it  off  till  you 
have  an  opportunity  to  gather  a  good  variety  of  such 
plants  as  are  here  named. 


178  THE   FIRST  BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

Observe  the  lower  joints  of  the  stem  in  the  plants 
of  a  cornfield.  Look  at  a  good  many  of  them.  Can 
you  tell  whether  the  branches  you  see  growing  on 
this  part  of  some  of  the  stalks  are  stem-like  or  root- 
like? 

Observe  the  stem  of  ivy.  Notice  the  little  fingers 
it  puts  out  for  support.  Are  they  stems  or  roots  ? 

Would  you  now  say  that  all  the  parts  of  plants 
growing  above-ground  are  stems?  Would  you  say 
that  all  the  parts  of  plants  growing  underground  are 
roots  ? 


CHAPTER   X. 
FRUIT. 

EXEECISE   LXVII. 
What   is   Fruit? 

PLUCK  from  the  vine  of  the  pea  or  bean  several 
pods  of  different  ages,  from  one  still  enveloped  by  the 
flower,  to  one  that  is  full  grown.  Compare  the 
youngest  pod  you  have  gathered  with  Fig.  192.  What 
part  of  the  pistil  becomes  the  pod  ?  Compare  it  with 
Fig.  193.  How  many  carpels  has  the  ovary  of  the 
bean  or  pea  ? 

Observe  the  contents  of  this  pod. 

What  name  is  given  to  these  little  soft  bodies  ? 

Answer. — O'vules. 

Compare  these  ovules  with  the  contents  of  a  full- 


FKUIT.  179 

grown  pod.  "What  are  these  full-grown  ripe  bodies 
called  ? 

What  name  is  given  to  pod  and  contents  taken 
together  ? 

Answer. — Fruit. 

What  is  every  ovary  and  its  contents  ? 

Answer. — It  is  fruit.  The  fruit  of  a  plant  is  its 
ripened  ovary. 

By  what  words  would  you  distinguish  the  young 
from  the  mature  ovary  ? 

Examine  all  the  flowers  that  are  just  fading,  and 
look  for  the  ovules  in  their  unripe  fruit.  Find  the 
ovules  of  a  young  apple.  Of  an  unripe  cucumber. 
Of  an  unripe  tomato.  Of  any  unripe  fruit  you  see 
growing  within  reach. 

Observe  the  same  plants  when  the  fruit  is  ripe, 
and  compare  the  aspect  of  the  seeds  with  the  appear- 
ance the  ovules  presented. 

Try  to  count  the  carpels  in  all  the  ovaries  you 
examine.  Observe  whether  they  are  grown  together 
or  not.  Count  the  carpels  shown  in  Fig.  197.  Do 
you  see  the  three  white  lines  passing  outward  from 
the  centre  in  this  picture?  Should  you  judge  that 
the  carpels  from  which  this  picture  was  taken  were 
grown  together  ?  Search,  among  plants  that  are  go- 
ing to  seed,  for  ovaries  resembling  this  one. 


180  THE   FIRST  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

EXEECISE    LXVIII. 
Sutures  and  Dehiscence. 

LOOK  among  the  ripe  and  dry  pea  and  bean  pods, 
upon  the  dry  vines,  for  those  that  have  begun  to  open. 
Examine  the  edges  of  the  separate  parts.  Do  you 
see  something  like  a  joint  where  the  two  parts  were 
united  ?  Compare  them  with  Fig.  291. 

FIG.  291. 


DEIIIS'CENCE. — The  opening  of  a  seed-vessel  at 
maturity.  See  Fig.  291. 

STJT'TJKE. — A  seam.  The  line  along  which  dehis- 
cence  occurs,  and  so  permits  the  escape  of  the  seeds. 

VEN'TRAL  SUTURE. — The  inner  suture  of  a  carpel. 
The  one  looking  toward  the  centre  of  the  flower.  In 
Fig.  291,  it  is  the  suture  along  which  the  ovules  are 
attached. 

DOR'SAL  SUTURE. — The  outer  suture.  See  Fig.  291. 

What  name  is  given  to  those  joints  in  ovaries  at 
which  they  open  when  the  seeds  are  ripe  ?  How  many 


FRUIT.  181 

sutures  has  a  bean-pod?  To  which  suture  are  the 
beans  attached  ? 

When  an  ovary  opens  spontaneously,  and  thus 
liberates  its  seeds,  it  is  called  a  DEHISCENT  OVARY. 
"When  it  does  not  open,  it  is  an  DTDEHISCENT  ovary. 

Are  there  any  indehi scent  ovaries  among  the  fruits 
of  the  garden  or  farm  ? 

Mention  all  the  dehiscent  ovaries  you  can  think  of. 

Again  turn  to  Fig.  19Y,  and  compare  it  with 
Fig.  292. 

FIG.  292. 

Apex. 


Obtain  the  ripe  fruit  of  IRIS  [flower  de  luce],  and 
compare  it  with  the  pictures  ?  Is  it  a  dehiscent  or 
indehiscent  fruit  ?  Can  you  find  sutures  at  which  the 
carpels  open  ?  What  do  you  call  the  suture  at  which 
the  seeds  are  attached  ?  "What  do  you  call  the  line 
in  the  outer  wall  of  each  carpel,  opposite  the  ventral 
suture  ? 

BASE. — The  bottom  of  the  ovary.  The  end  at- 
tached to  the  peduncle.  Figs.  292,  293. 

A'PEX.— The  top  of  the  ovary.     Fig.  292. 

DISSIP'IMENTS. — The  partitions  between  the  cells 
of  syncarpous  [carpels  united]  ovaries.  Fig.  293. 


182 


THE   FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 
FIG.  293. 


Pariet9S. 


PARI'ETES. — The  wall  of  the  ovary.     Fig.  293. 
Ax'is. — The  central  part  of  the  ovary  where  the 
ventral  sutures  join  together.    «,  Fig.  293. 


EXERCISE   LXIX. 
Parts  of  Carpels* 

FIG.  294. 


/• 


VALVES. — The  parts  into  which  carpels  separate 
by  dehiscence.  Fig.  294. 

PLACEN'TA. — The  cord  along  the  ventral  suture,  to 
which  the  ovules  are  attached.  It  is  the  "string" 
that  pulls  off  in  preparing  string-beans  for  the  table. 
pi,  Fig.  294 


FRUIT.  183 

Find  the  placenta  in  full  grown  bean  and  pea- 
pods.  Find  it  in  little  ones  where  you  can  just  see 
the  ovules.  Observe  the  little  stem  by  which  the 
ovules  and  seeds  are  attached  to  the  placenta.  By 
what  name  is  it  known  ? 

Answer. — It  is  called  the  FUNIC'ULUS. 

QUESTIONS  UPON  ANY  OVARY. 
Is  it  dehiscent  or  indehiscent  ? 

IF   DEHISCENT 

How  many  carpels  compose  it? 

Are  the  carpels  grown  together  ? 

Point  out  the  sutures  ? 

"Which  is  dorsal  and  which  ventral  ? 

Find  the  valves.    The  placenta.    The  funiculus. 

IF  INDEHISCENT — 

Can  you  count  the  carpels  ? 
Look  for  the  ovules  or  seeds. 
Point  to  the  funiculus.    The  placenta. 
Point  out  the  base  of  the  ovary.    The  apex.    The 
axis.    The  parietes.    The  dissipiments. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
THE  ACTIONS  OF  PLANTS 

EXERCISE  LXX. 
Root-action  and  Leaf-action. 

FIG.  295. 


COVER  a  tumbler  with  a  piece  of  card-board,  cut 
as  seen  in  Fig.  296.  Pull  up  by  the  roots  a  young 
growing  plant  of  any  kind,  and  slip  it  root  downward 
into  the  hole  made  in  the  centre  of  the  card-board. 
Pour  into  the  tumbler  water  enough  to  cover  the 
roots,  and  expose  the  leaves  to  sunshine. 


THE   ACTIONS    OF   PLANTS. 
FIG.  296. 


185 


Into  another  tumbler  of  water  with  a  similar 
cover  put  a  second  plant,  leaves  downward,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  297,  and  expose  it  to  sunshine. 

After  a  few  hours,  compare  the  two  plants.  How 
has  it  fared  with  the  one  that  had  its  roots  in  water  ? 
What  is  the  appearance  of  the  other  ? 

Let  us  now  find,  if  we  can,  what  was  going  on  in 
the  plant  that  kept  up  its  freshness. 

Arrange  a  glass  of  water  with  a  cover  of  slit  card- 
board as  before.  Place  in  it  a  plant,  root  downward, 
and  cover  the  leaves  with  a  glass,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
297.  Let  it  stand  for  a  time  in  the  sunshine.  In  a 
little  while  look  at  the  inverted  tumbler.  What  do 
you  see  upon  its  inner  surface  ?  Where  did  it  come 
from  ?  What  had  the  roots  to  do  with  it  ? 


186  THE   FIRST   BOOK   OF   BOTANY. 

FIG.  297. 


Invert  a  tumbler  in  this  way  above  the  roots  of  a 
plant  placed  as  in  Fig.  296.  Do  you,  in  this  case,  get 
moisture  on  the  inside  of  the  inverted  tumbler  ? 
Can  you  not  make  leaves  do  the  work  of  roots? 

Strip  a  plant  of  its  leaves  and  place  it  under  a 
glass  as  in  Fig.  297,  with  the  roots  in  water.  Place 
it  in  the  sun  as  before  and  see  if  any  moisture  gathers 
upon  the  glass. 

"What  can  be  done  by  a  plant  with  leaves,  that 
cannot  be  done  by  a  plant  without  leaves  ?  What, 
then,  is  one  use  of  leaves  ? 


THE   ACTIONS  OF  PLANTS.  187 

The  action  of  the  root  in  sucking  up  water  is 
named  ABSORPTION. 

The  action  of  leaves  in  giving  off  water  is  called 

TRANSPIRATION. 

The  roots  absorb.     The  leaves  transpire. 

There  are  two  more  words  that  these  experiments 
illustrate.  The  first  of  these  is  the  word  ORGAN.  An 
organ  is  any  part  of  a  plant  or  animal  that  does  a 
particular  kind  of  work  different  from  that  done  by 
other  parts. 

Is  the  root  an  organ  ?  "What  do  your  legs  do  that 
no  other  part  of  your  body  can  do  ?  ATP,  they  organs  ? 
Is  your  tongue  an  organ  ?  Are  leaves  organs  ? 

The  other  word  to  be  explained  is  FUNCTION.  Or- 
gans have  functions.  The  function  of  an  organ  is 
what  it  .does.  What  is  the  function  of  your  eye  ? 
What  is  the  function  of  a  bird's  wings  ?  What  func- 
tion of  roots  have  you  discovered  by  your  experiments  ? 
What  is  one  of  the  functions  of  leaves  ? 

Remember  that  the  particular  work  any  organ 
does  is  its  FUNCTION. 


LEAF    SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDULE  ONE. 
See  Page  19,  Exercises  Z,  7Z,  J/Z,  /F.,  and  V. 


Parts? 

Venation  ? 

SCHEDULE  Two. 
&*?  Pa^e  27,  Exercise  VI. 

Parts? 

Venation  ? 

Margin  ? 

SCHEDULE  THEEE. 
See  Page  30,  Exercise  VII. 

Parts  2 

Venation  ? 

Margin  ? 

Base? 

LEAF   SCHEDULES. 

SCHEDULE  FOUE. 
See  Page  32,  Exercise  VIII. 


189 


Parts? 

Venation  ? 

Margin  ? 

Base? 

Apex? 

SCHEDULE  FIVE. 
See  Page  34,  Exercise  IX. 


Parts? 

Yenation  ? 

Margin  ? 

Base? 

Apex? 

. 

Lobes  ? 

190 


LEAF    SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDULE  Six. 
See  Page  36,  Exercise  X. 


Parts  ? 

Venation  ? 

Margin  ? 

Base? 

Apex? 

Lobes  ? 

Sinuses  ? 

SCHEDULE  SEVEN. 
Page  38,  Exercises  XL  and  XII. 


Kind? 

Venation  ? 

Margin  ? 

Base? 

LEAF   SCHEDULES. 
SCHEDULE  SEVEX. — (  Continued.) 


191 


Apex? 

Lobes  ? 

Sinuses  ? 

Shape  ? 

SCHEDFLE  EIGHT. 
See  Page  44,  Exercises  XIII.  and  XIV. 


Kind? 

Yenation  ? 

Margin  ? 

Base? 

Apex? 

Lobes? 

Sinuses  ? 

• 

Shape  ? 

192 


LEAF    SCHEDULES. 

SCHEDULE  EIGHT. — (Continued.} 


Petiole  ? 

Color? 

Surface? 

SCHEDULE  NINE. 
See  Page  50,  Exercise  XV. 


Parts? 

« 

No.  of  Leaflets? 

SCHEDULE  TEN. 

61,  Exercise  XVI. 


Parts  ? 

No.  of  Leaflets  ? 

Kind? 

• 

STEM    SCHEDULES. 

SCHEDULE  ELEYEN. 
Page  56,  Exercises  XVII.  and  XVIII. 


193 


Parts? 

No.  Leaflets  ? 

Kind? 

Variety  ? 

STEM    SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDULE  TWELVE. 
See  Page  63,  Exercises  XXL  and  XXII. 


Parts? 

Appendages  ? 

LEAF. — 


194 


STEM   SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDULE  THIRTEEN. 
See  Page  65,  Exercise  XXIII. 


~ 

Appendages  ? 

Leaf-position  ? 

LEAF. — 


SCHEDULE  FIFTEEN. 
See  Page  68,  Exercise  XXIV. 


Appendages  ? 

Leaf-position  ? 

Leaf-arrangement  ? 

LEAF. — 


SCHEDULE  SIXTEEN. 
See  Page  70,  Exercise  XXV. 


Appendages  ? 

Leaf-position  ? 

Leaf-arrangement  ? 

Shape  ? 

LEAF. — 


STEM    SCHEDULES. 


195 


SCHEDULE  SEVENTEEN. 
See  Page  74,  Exercise  XXVI. 


Appendages  ? 

Leaf-position  ? 

Leaf-arrangement  ? 

Shape? 

Attitude? 

LEAF. — 


SCHEDULE  EIGHTEEN. 
See  Page  75,  Exercise  XXVII. 


Appendages  ? 

Leaf-position  ? 

Leaf-arrangement  ? 

Shape? 

Attitude  ? 

Color  ? 

196  INFLORESCENCE   SCHEDULES. 

SCHEDULE  EIGHTEEN. — (Continued.) 


Surface  ? 

1 

Size? 

Structure  ? 

LEAF. — 


lETLOEESCENCE    SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDULE  EIGHTEEN. 
See  Page  81,  Exercises  XXVIIL,  XXIX.,  and  XXX. 


Parts  ? 

Attitude  ? 

LEAP. — 


STEM. — 


INFLORESCENCE    SCHEDULES. 

SCHEDULE  NINETEEN. 
See  Page  86,  Exercises  XXXL  and  XXXII. 


197 


Parts? 

Attitude? 

Position  ? 

LEAF. — 
STEM. — 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY. 
See  Page  89,  Exercise  XXXJJI. 


Parts? 

i 

Attitude? 

Position  ? 

Kind? 

LEAF. — 


STEM. — 


198 


INFLORESCENCE   SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-ONE. 
See  Page    95,  Exercise  XXXIV. 


Parts? 

Attitude  ? 

Position  ? 

Kind? 

Variety  ? 

LEAF.  — 
STEM.  — 

FLO  WEE   SCHEDULES.  ^99 

FLOWER    SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-TWO. 
See  Page    98,  Exercises  XXXV.,  XXXVI., 


XXXVII. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Calyx? 

Corolla  ? 

LEAF. — 
STEM. — 
INFLORESCENCE. — 

SCHEDULE  TWENTY-THBEE. 
See  Page    98,  Exercises  XXXV.,  XXXVI.,  and  XXXVH. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Perianth? 

LEAF. — 
STEM. — 
INFLORESCENCE. — 


200 


FLOWER   SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-FOUB. 
See  Page  100,  Exercises  XXXVIII.  and  XXXIX. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Description. 

Calyx? 

Corolla? 

LEAF. — 
STEM. — 
INFLORESCENCE. — 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-FIVE. 
See  Page  102,  Exercise  XL. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Description. 

Calyx? 

Corolla? 

LEAF.  — 
STEM.  — 
INFLORESCENCE.  — 

FLOWER   SCHEDULES. 


201 


SCHEDULE  TWENTY-SIX. 
See  Page  102,  Exercise  XL. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Description. 

Perianth? 

LEAF. — 
STEM. — 
INFLORESCENCE. — 


SCHEDULE 
See  Page  104,  Exercise  XLI. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

Description. 

Calyx? 

Corolla? 

Stamens  ? 

LEAF. — 

STEM. — 
INFLORESCENCE. 


202 


FLOWIK    SCHEDULES. 


SCHEDUIE  TWENTY-EIGHT. 
See  Page  106,  Exercises  XLII.  and  XLIII. 


Names  of  Parts. 

No. 

~1 
Description. 

Calyx? 

Corolla  ? 

Stamens  ? 

Pistil? 

LEAF. — 
STEM. — 
INFLORESCENCE. — 


NOTE. — This  is  the  last  form  of  schedule  in  the  book.  As 
the  pupil  passes  on  from  exercise  to  exercise,  he  will  he  en- 
ahled  to  add  one  feature  after  another  to  his  descriptions ;  but 
the  mode  of  inserting  these  new  points  will  not  make  any 
change  in  the  form  of  the  schedule. 


OPINIONS  CONCERNING 


FIEST  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 


IT  is  bnt  rarely  that  a  school-book  appears  which  is  at  once 
so  novel  in  plan,  so  successful  in  execution,  and  so  suited  to 
the  general  want  as  to  command  universal  and  unqualified  ap- 
probation, but  such  has  been  the  case  with  Miss  Youmans's 
First  Book  of  Botany.  Her  work  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  most 
reqent  scientific  views,  and  has  been  practically  tested  by  care- 
ful trial  with  juvenile  classes,  and  it  has  been  everywhere  wel- 
comed as  a  timely  and  invaluable  contribution  to  the  improve- 
ment of  primary  education.  We  select  the  following  out  of  the 
mass  of  testimonials  which  have  come  to  us  from  the  highest 
sources,  and  commend  them  to  the  attention  of  teachers,  par- 
ents, and  boards  of  education  : 

From  PBO*.  JOHK  S.  HART,  Principal  of  the  Trenton  Normal  School. 

This  little  book  seems  to  me  to  supply  the  very  thing  needed  in  our  con  re  e 
of  primary  instruction.  I  refer  not  to  the  study  of  botany,  but  to  the  method 
of  studying  it  here  developed.  We  have  here  a  fourth  fundamental  branch  of 
Btudy,  which  shall  afford  a  systematic  training  of  the  observing  powers ;  and 
its  general  introduction  into  our  primary  schools  would  work  a  great  and  most 
important  revolution  in  our  whole  system  of  education. 


OPINIONS    CONCERNING 


From  the  Nation. 

Natural  history  is  about  as  well  suited  to  be  taught  by  a  text-book  as  mo- 
rality or  religion.  If  a  book  must  come  into  the  business,  it  will  be  good  in 
proportion  to  its  want  of  all  the  characters  which  belong  to  the  class.  Judged 
by  this  standard,  we  must  award  the  unpretending  work  of  Miss  Yonmann 
high  praise.  The  authoress  has  unquestionably  the  true  conception  of  the  duty 
of  the  teacher.  Every  effort  is  made  to  keep  the  attention  of  the  student  upon 
the  object  to  be  studied,  and  so  well  has  she  succeeded  that  one  may  safely  say 
that  the  student  can  do  nothing  with  the  book  unless  he  has  the  specimen  in 
hand.  The  plan  is  so  arranged  as  to  be  suitable  for  a  primary  school,  but  the 
method  is  one  which  may  apply  to  the  college  as  well.  We  heartily  recom. 
mend  every  teacher  in  any  department  of  natural  science,  who  is  wise  enough 
to  doubt  the  perfection  of  his  methods,  to  look  over  this  book. 

As  an  appendix,  the  authoress  gives  us  her  opinions  on  the  educational 
claims  of  botany.  Although  she  assigns  a  high  value  to  this  study,  it  is  not 
a  higher  value  than  any  teacher,  who  has  had  varied  experience  in  teaching 
natural  history,  must  award  to  it.  The  proper  road  into  the  biological  sci- 
ences is  certainly  through  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  material  is  more  ac- 
cessible ;  the  forms  are  less  influenced  by  vitality,  and  the  problems  are  not 
BO  complicated ;  and,  in  giving  us  this  good  guide  for  the  student  and  better 
guide  for  the  teacher,  Miss  Youmans  has  earned  the  thanks  of  all  those  who 
desire  to  see  education  what  it  should  be. 


From  EDWARD  SMITH,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Syracuse,  N.  T. 

Miss  Youmans's  Botany  is  the  only  work  I  have  ever  seen  that  meets  the 
wants  of  our  schools  in  the  lower  grades.  I  believe  it  will  do  more  to  turn  th« 
attention  of  instructors  into  the  proper  channel  for  the  education  of  children 
than  any  thing  heretofore  published. 

From  PBOI-.  WM.  F.  PHBLPS,  Principal  of  the  Normal  School,  Winona,  Minn. 

I  am  delighted  with  this  little  work.  It  gives  us  a  scientific  plan  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  observing  powers  of  the  young.  Send  us  at  once  150  copies 
for  the  use  of  this  institution. 

After  using  it  several  weeks,  Prof.  Phelps  thus  closes  an  elaborate  notice 
of  the  book  in  the  Winona  Republican  : 

Every  class  in  the  institution  is  now  devoting  a  regular  portion  of  its 
time,  daily,  to  this  study  pursued  in  this  practical  way.  The  results  thus  far 
are  highly  satisfactory.  It  has  awakened  a  new  interest  in  study  throughout 
the  school.  Many,  who  have  heretofore  been  indifferent  in  their  work,  have 
taken  hold  with  great  zeal,  and  are  pursuing  this  fascinating  branch  with  ardor 
and  enthusiasm.  It  is  no  uncommon  spectacle,  as  we  are  informed,  to  see 
children  occupying  their  play-hours  with  a  bunch  of  plants,  and,  book  in  hand, 
pursuing  this  study  as  a  pastime.  This,  surely,  is  an  unerring  test  of  ita 
value,  as  it  is  the  highest  recommendation  that  could  be  given  of  its  adaptation 
to  the  wants  of  our  primary  schools.  We  heartily  commend  the  book  to  pai 
ents  and  teachers  everywhere. 


THE    FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 


From  D.  C.  SCOVILLB,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Bay  City,  Mich. 

Miss  Youmans's  Botany  has  been  submitted  to  several  of  our  teachers,  and 
we  are  a  unit  in  the  opinion  that  it  ia  the  best  book  of  the  kind  and  degree  yet 
published.  It  promises  to  do  what  no  other  I  know  of  can  do— enable  teach- 
ers in  the  junior  and  even  the  primary  grades  of  our  public  schools  to  teach 
botany  in  a  scientific  and  systematic,  yet  simple  and  fascinating  manner. 
Another  year  you  may  be  sure  we  shall  call  on  you  for  a  large  number  of  these 
books. 


From  WM.  L.  DICKINSON,  Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  Jersey  City. 

I  shall  recommend  Miss  Youmans's  Botany  as  the  best  book  of  the  present 
age,  in  the  science  of  botany,  for  beginners. 

From  the  New  York  Tribune. 

The  strong  point  of  Miss  Youmans's  book  is  that  it  combines  methodical 
object-study  with  the  acquisition  of  an  established  branch  of  knowledge;  and 
we  cordially  recommend  it  to  teachers  as  a  valuable  contribution  to  educational 
progress  in  one  of  its  most  important  aspects. 

From  REV.  S.  LOCKWOOD,  Ph.  D.,  Supt.  of  Pub.  Inst.,  Monmoufh  Co.,  N.  J. 

I  have  been  anxiously  looking  for  Miss  Youmans's  work  with  much  hope, 
but  not  without  fear;  for  school-books  are  so  often  the  evolvings  of  crotch- 
ety egotists  ;  they  promise  so  much  and  fulfil  so  little,  that  caution  in  regard 
to  promises  is  indispensable.  But  my  best  expectations  of  this  little  book  have 
been  fairly  met.  An  examination  of  it  has  begotten  very  positive  convictions 
as  to  its  merit.  I  regard  its  method  as  the  true  initiative  key  to  botanical 
and  zoological  science.  Bj'  this  I  mean  the  mastery  of  the  technical  terms 
and  elementary  facts  on  the  skilful  handling  of  which  so  much  depends  in 
the  correct  determination  of  species.  It  is  here  that  the  usual  teaching  ia 
loose,  indistinct,  and  repulsive,  and  it  is  precisely  here  that  the  method  of  this 
work  is  incisive  and  alive  with  interest.  I  am  confident  that  the  plan  of 
the  late  Prof.  Henslow,  here  unfolded,  will  do  the  same  for  the  observing  fac- 
ulties that  mathematics  accomplish  for  the  reasoning  powers. 

From  V.  C.  DOUGL&.S,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Oswego,  N.  T. 

I  am  very  much  pleased  indeed  with  Miss  Youmans's  work,  and  beliere  It 
to  be  most  admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  of  children  and  youth. 

From  W.  A.  HAMMOND,  M.  D.,  Professor  of  Diseases  of  the  Mind  and  Nervout 
System,  Bettemte  Hospital  Medical  College,  New  York. 

This  is  the  best  manual  of  the  kind  I 'have  ever  seen,  and  it  is  the  only  true 
method  of  teaching  botany;  it  should  be  adopted  in  ail  branches  of  natural 
history. 


OPINIONS   CONCERNING 


From  the  New  York  World. 

We  hare  seen  no  book  of  the  kind  for  a  long  time  which  is  so  well  calcu- 
lated to  be  an  aid  to  the  teacher  and  a  delight  to  pupils. 

From  War.  C  BOWEN,  A.  M.,  Principal  of  STcaneateles  Academy. 

Should  I  speak  as  strongly  as  my  approbation  of  Miss  Youmans's  object 
and  method  would  warrant,  I  might  be  thought  extravagant  This  book 
should  be  introduced  into  every  primary  and  common  school,  and  into  every 
family,  in  the  land. 

From  W.  JOHNSON,  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  the  State  of  Maine, 

As  a  text-book  for  beginners,  Miss  Toumans's  work  is  almost  faultless. 
The  arrangement  and  development  seem  to  me  most  natural. 

From  the  Galaxy. 

Miss  Toumans's  elaborate  essay  cannot  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of 
thoughtful  teachers,  as  it  not  only  goes  to  the  root  of  educational  questions, 
but  is  an  admirable  example  of  lucid  and  forcible  presentation.  It  is  no 
vague  and  aimless  criticism  of  existing  school  methods.  Nothing  is  easier 
than  to  point  out  defects ;  nothing  harder  than  to  remedy  them.  But  the  author- 
ess not  only  shows  what  is  lacking ;  she  offers  what  is  wanting.  She  has  de- 
veloped a  plan  of  botanical  study  in  which  there  are  no  "  lessons  "  to  be  learned, 
but  which  carries  the  pupil  straight  to  the  living  objects,  and  secures  the  con- 
tinuous action  of  the  mind  upon  them.  MissYoumans  has  rendered  a  very 
important  service  to  elementary  education  in  the  preparation  of  her  book. 

From  SAMUEL  Q.  Low,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Jamestown,  N.  Y. 

I  am  greatly  pleased  with  this  work.  It  is  a  wonder  that  some  one  did  not 
think  to  treat  the  subject  of  botany  in  the  same  way  long  before  this. 

From  G.  C.  PIOKABD,  Principal  High  School,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Miss  Youmans's  Botany  is  a  book  long  needed,  and  ought  to  come  at  once 
into  popular  use  and  be  made  a  text-book  in  all  our  primary  schools.  The 
advantages  of  making  botany  a  fourth  study— if  not  too  many  to  be  enumerated 
—are,  it  seems  to  me,  too  great  to  be  measured. 

From  the  Christian  Union. 

No  greater  service  can  be  rendered  to  education  than  to  rescue  it  from  the 
Btupefying  routine  of  mere  verbal  acquisition  by  any  method  that  will  stimu- 
late the  curiosity,  arouse  inquiry,  awaken  observation,  and  provoke  inde- 
pendent thought.  Miss  Youmans  has  skilfully  adapted  her  book  to  the  at 


THE    FIRST   BOOK    OF   BOTANY. 

La'.nment  of  these  objects,  and,  In  doing  this,  she  has  earned  the  cordial  thanks 
of  all  the  best  friends  of  education. 

From  the  Kansas  Educational  Journal. 

We  have  no  hesitation  in  pronouncing  this  book  much  above  the  averaef 
of  "  First  Books  "  in  science.  It  is  the  earnest  desire  of  the  author— and  to  it 
we  add  our  own— that  botany  be  taught  in  public  schools  of  all  grades.  It 
is  the  science  of  all  sciences  for  children. 

From  EDWAHD  BROOKS,  Prin.  of  the  State  Normal  School,  M&lersvitte,  Pa. 

The  First  Book  of  Botany  is  both  a  novelty  and  a  success ;  two  things  not 
often  contained  in  a  text-book. 

from  the  Ohio  Educational  Monthly. 

Here  at  last  is  a  manual  for  teachers  presenting  a  simple  and  well-graded 
course  of  oral  instruction  in  botany.  Its  aim  is  to  show  the  teacher  how  to 
lead  his  pupils  step  by  step  to  an  elementary  knowledge  of  plants,  and  to 
this  end  the  successive  lessons  are  so  fully  sketched  and  illustrated  that  no 
teacher  with  ordinary  skill  and  energy  need  fail  of  success. 

From  the  Journal  of  Applied  Chemistry. 

Miss  Youmans's  manual  can  be  recommended  as  affording  an  admirable 
foundation  for  the  study  of  botany,  and  can  be  profitably  used  by  parents  ai 
well  as  teachers. 

From  the  Independent. 
Miss  Youmans  is  on  the  right  track,  and  her  work  is  admirably  done. 


From  the  Ohio  Farmer. 

This  is  not  a  great  book  nor  upon  a  new  subject,  but  it  is  a  very  important 
Improvement  in  the  way  of  teaching  botany. 


From  J.  H.  HOOSE,  Superintendent  State  Normal  School,  Cortiand,  N.  T. 

I  have  pleasure  in  recommending  the  extensive  introduction  of  Miss  You 
mans's  book  into  the  schools  of  the  country.  I  think  it  superior  to  any  ele 
mentary  work  upon  this  subject  that  has  previously  come  under  my  observa 
lion. 

From  M.  A.  MACDONAIJ>,  Principal  of  the  Locust  VaUey,  L.  /.,  Public  School, 
I  have  been  at  some  pains  to  give  this  book,  and  especially  the  system  em 


OPINIONS  CONCERNING  THE  FIRST  BOOK  OF  BOTANY. 

ployed  in  the  work,  a  careful  study ;  and  have  no  hesitation  in  giving  both 
my  unqualified  preference  to  every  thing  I  have  seen  on  the  subject  elsewhere 

From  E.  A.  APGAB,  Superintendent  of  Pub.  Inst.  in  New  Jersey. 

This  is  just  the  book  I  would  desire  to  put  into  the  hands  of  all  children 
commencing  botany. 

From  MBS.  BBTAN,  Principal  of  the  Female  Seminary  at  Batavia. 

Nothing  better  can  be  said  of  Miss  Youmans's  fresh  and  well-arranged 
book,  than  that  it  is  exactly  what  was  wanted.  This  is  the  opinion  I  formed 
upon  its  first  examination,  and  which  has  been  confirmed  by  its  use  in  our 
institution. 

From  C.  G.  COLLINS,  Supt.  Pub.  Schools,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa. 
Miss  Youmans's  little  book  must  accomplish  much  in  our  schools. 

From  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

As  a  text-book  for  classes,  we  consider  Miss  Youmans's  book  the  best  that 
we  have  seen. 


THE 

FIRST  BOOK  OF  BOTANI: 

DESIGNED  TO 

CULTIVATE  THE  OBSERVING  POWERS  OF  CHILDREN. 
BY  ELIZA  A.   YOUMANS. 
Price,  $1. 

Specimen  copy  of  the  work  will  be  mailed,  post-paid,  to  Teachers, 
Professors,  and  School-Officers,  on  receipt  of  one-half  the  retail  price. 

Communications  from  School-Officers  and  Teachers  are  respectfully 
invited. 

D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

549  &  551  Broadway,  New  York. 


Appletons'  Standard  Scientific  Text-Books, 


Youmans's  First  Book  of  Botany.     Designed  to  cultivate  the  Observing 

Powers  of  Children.  By  ELIZA  A.  YOUMANS.  i2mo.  183  pages.  $1.00. 
This  little  book  has  proved  a  wonderful  success,  and  is  emphatically  a  step  in  the 
right  direction.  Although  it  has  been  issued  but  a  short  time,  it  has  been  adopted  for 
use  in  the  cities  of  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  New  York,  Columbus,  Nashville,  Milwaukee, 
etc.,  etc.,  and  in  the  States  of  Maryland,  Illinois,  and  Arkansas.  It  is  to  be  speedily 
followed  by  the  Second  Book  of  Botany  and  six  large  and  beautifully-colored  Botanical 
Charts,  after  the  plan  of  Henslow. 

Hon.  Superintendent  Bateman,  of  Illinois,  says:  "As  a  sample  of  the  true  method 
of  teaching  the  elements  of  science  in  primary  schools,  Miss  Youmans's  book  is  deserv- 
ing of  the  highest  praise.  In  this  respect  I  have  seen  nothing  equal  to  it.  The  same 
method,  pursued  in  all  the  natural  sciences,  would  soon  give  us  a  generation  of  accu- 
rate and  intelligent  young  observers  of  natural  objects  and  phenomena,  and  change  for 
the  better  the  whole  tone  and  character  of  common-school  instruction. 

"NEWTON  BATEMAN,  Sup' t  Public  Instruction" 

IiOckyer's  Astronomy,  accompanied  with  numerous  Illustrations,  a  Colored 
•epresentation  of  the  Solar,  Stellar,  and  Nebular  Spectra,  and  Celestial  Charts  of 
the  Northern  and  the  Southern  Hemispheres.  American  Edition,  revised  and 
specially  adapted  to  the  Schools  of  the  United  States.  i2mo.  312  pages. 
Quackenbos's  Natural  Philosophy.  Revised  Edition.  Embracing  the 
most  recent  Discoveries  in  the  various  Branches  of  Physics,  and  exhibiting  the 
Application  of  Scientific  Principles  in  Every-day  Life.  Adapted  to  use  with  or 
without  Apparatus,  and  accompanied  with  Practical  Exercises  and  numerous  Illus- 
trations. i2mo.  450  pages. 

Quackenbos's  Philosophy  has  long  been  a  favorite  Text-Book.  To  those  who  have 
used  it,  no  words  of  commendati«n  are  necessary ;  to  those  who  have  not,  we  would 
earnestly  suggest  a  careful  examination  of  its  claims.  We  would  here  merely  say  that 
it  has  recently  been  THOROUGHLY  REVISED,  in  view  of  recent  discoveries  in  Physics, 
and  the  general  acceptance  of  new  theories  respecting  Heat,  Light,  and  Electricity, 
the  Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces,  etc.  The  present  Edition  is  in  all  respects 
an  accurate  exponent  of  the  present  state  of  science. 

Huxley  and  Youmans's  Physiology.  The  Elements  of  Physiology  and 
Hygiene.  A  Text-Book  for  Educational  Institutions.  By  THOMAS  H.  HUXLEY, 
F.  R.  S.,  and  WILLIAM  JAY  YOUMANS,  M.  D.  i2mo.  420  pages. 

Nicholson's  Text-Book  of  Geology.     Well  condensed,  accurate,  and  clear. 

i2mo.     266  pages. 

Nicholson's  Text-Book  of  Zoology.  A  comprehensive  Manual  for  the  use 
of  Academies  and  Colleges.  By  Prof.  NICHOLSON,  of  Toronto.  iamo.  353  pages. 

Wragre's  German  Grammar:  based  on  the  Natural  Method— Language  be- 
fore Grammar.  Teaches  German  rapidly,  pleasantly,  and  thoroughly.  i2mo. 
350  pages. 

Krusi's  New  Series  of  Drawing-Books :  Teacher's  Manual,  and  Synthetic 
Series  of  Inventive  Drawing  (4  Nos.),  now  ready.  Something  new  and  excellent 
—one  of  the  most  valuable  and  efficient  of  educational  agencies. 

Send,  for  Catalogues  and  further  information,  to 

D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  549  &  551  Broadway,  N.  Y. 


D.  APPLE  TON  &  CO:  8  PUBLICATIONS. 


Cornell's  Physical  Geography: 

ACCOMPANIED  WITH  NINETEEN  PAGES  OF  MAPS,  A  GREAT  VARIETY  OF  MAP 

QUESTIONS,  AND  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  THIRTY  DIAGRAMS  AND 

PICTORIAL   ILLUSTRATIONS ;   AND   EMBRACING  A 

DETAILED    DESCRIPTION    OF  THE 

Physical  Features  of  the    United  States* 

By    s.    s.    CORNELL. 

1  vol.    Large  4to.    104  pages. 


The  attention  of  teachers  is  particularly  requested  to  this  new  volume 
by  the  Author  of  Cornell's  popular  Series  of  Geographies,  in  the  belief 
that  it  will  be  found  to  embrace  all  that  is  valuable  and  interesting  in 
this  important  branch  of  study,  and  to  be,  beyond  competition,  the  best 
text-book  on  the  subject.  It  is  no  mere  rehash  of  time-honored  details,  but 
has  been  drawn  from  original  sources,  and  is  on  a  level  with  the  present 
advanced  state  of  the  science.  Clearness,  adaptation  to  the  school-room, 
inductiveness  of  arrangement,  and  the  presentation  of  one  thing  at  a 
time  and  every  thing  in  its  proper  place— features  which  have  contrib- 
uted so  largely  to  the  success  of  the  other  Geographies  of  the  CORNELL 
Series — are  among  its  striking  characteristics. 

It  is  interesting  to  the  learner.  The  dry  statistical  style  usual  in 
similar  text-books  has  been  avoided,  and  the  great  wonders  of  Nature, 
always  fascinating  to  the  inquiring  mind,  are  presented  in  the  most  strik- 
ing manner,  so  as  to  rivet  the  attention  and  impress  the  memory. 

The  illustrations  are  numerous  and  beautiful,  and  are  used  wherever 
it  was  thought  they  would  help  to  elucidate  the  text.  Maps  and  diagrams 
have  been  liberally  introduced.  The  maps  are  executed  in  the  finest 
style  of  the  art — carefully  drawn,  distinctly  engraved,  and  tastefully  col- 
ored according  to  the  most  approved  style.  Each  map  is  accompanied 
with  questions  in  great  variety. 

The  physical  features  of  our  own  country  receive  particular  attention 
in  a  closing  chapter.  The  student  is  aided  by  a  fine  Physical  Map  of  the 
United  States,  which  (hi  addition  to  the  features  usually  presented)  shows 
the  mean  annual  temperature  of  diiferent  parts  of  the  country,  the  vege- 
table products  of  different  sections,  and  their  mineral  resources,  the  rela- 
tive values  of  the  precious  metals  produced  in  the  several  States  being 
clearly  represented  to  the  eye  by  an  ingenious  plan.  A  Map  of  Alaska, 
on  a  comparatively  large  scale,  is  also  presented. 

It  is  believed  that  the  above  features,  besides  others  which  there  ie 
no  space  here  to  enumerate,  cannot  fail  to  recommend  this  work  to  all. 


D.  Appleton  d:  Co.,  New  York,  have  now  ready, 

A  NEW 

CLASS-BOOK  OF  CHEMISTRY, 

IN   WHICH 

THE    LATEST  FACTS    AND    PRINCIPLES    OF   THE    SCIENCE  ARE 

EXPLAINED  AND  APPLIED  TO  THE  ARTS  OF  LIFE 

AND  THE  PHENOMENA  OF  NATURE. 

A  NEW   EDITION, 

ENTIBELY      BEWBITTEN      AND      MUCH      ENLABGED. 

WITH 

nb  £m  Draftings. 


BY  EDWARD  L.  YOUMANB,  M.D. 

12mo.    460  pages. 

The  special  attention  of  Educators  is  solicited  to  this  work,  on  the  fol- 
lowing grounds : 

I.  It  brings  up  the  science  to  the  present  date,  incorporating  the  new  discov- 
eries, the  corrected  views  and  more  comprehensive  principles  which  have  resulted 
from  recent  inquiry.    Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  discoveries  in  Spectrum 
Analysis,  the  doctrines  of  the  Conservation  and  Correlation  of  Forces,  the  researches 
of  Berthelot  on  the  Artificial  Production  of  Organic  Substances,  the  interesting  re- 
searches of  Graham  on  the  Crystalloid  and  Colloid  condition  of  matter,  with  many 
other  results  of  recent  investigation  not  found  in  contemporary  text-books. 

II.  Avoiding  excess  of  technicalities,  it  presents  the  subject  in  a  lucid,  forcible, 
and  attractive  style. 

III.  It  is  profusely  illustrated  with  cuts  of  objects,  apparatus,  and  experiments, 
\vhic-h  enable  the  student  to  pursue  the  subject  alone  or  in  schools  without  ap- 
paratus. 

IV.  Directions  for  experimental  operations  are  much  condensed,  and  descrip- 
tions of  unimportant  chemical  substances  are  made  very  brief,  or  altogether  omit- 
ted, thus  obtaining  space  to  treat  with  unusual  fulness  the  "  chemistry  of  common 
Hie,"  and  the  later  revelations  of  this  beautiful  science. 

V.  It  presents  just  such  a  view  of  the  leading  principles  and  more  important 
facts  of  the  science  as  is  demanded  for  the  purposes  of  general  education. 

VI.  The  work  is  arranged  upon  a  natural  method,  the  topics  being  so  presented 
as  to  unfold  the  true  order  of  Nature's  activities.     Part  1  treats  of  the  natural 
forces  by  which  matter  is  transformed.     Part  II,  of  the  application  of  these  forces 
to  the  lower  or  mineral  world.     Part  III,  of  the  organic  kingdom,  which  rises  out 
of  the  preceding ;  while  Part  IV,  or  Physiological  Chemistry,  completes  the  scheme 
in  the  world  of  life. 

VII.  It  presents  the  science  not  only  as  a  branch  but  as  a  means  of  education— 
a  valuable  instrument  of  intellectual  culture  and  discipline. 

VIII.  It  gives  a  clear  exposition  of  the  origin  and  nature  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge and  the  value  of  scientific  studies  for  purposes  of  education. 

-4  Specimen  Copy  for  examination  will  be  sent,  post  paid,  on 
receipt  of  62  cents. 


D.  APPLETON  &  COSS  PUBLICATIONS. 

Quackenbos's  Standard  Text-Books : 

AN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR :  12mo,  288  pages. 

FIRST  BOOK  IN  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR :  16mo,  120  pages. 

ADVANCED  COURSE  OF  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC: 
12mo,  450  pages. 

FIRST  LESSONS  IN  COMPOSITION :  12mo,  182  pages. 

ILLUSTRATED  SCHOOL  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES: 
12mo,  638  pages. 

ELEMENTARY  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES:  Beauti- 
fully illustratad  with  Engravings  and  Maps.  12mo,  230  pages. 

A  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY:  Just  Revised.     12mo,  450  pages. 

APPLETONS'  ARITHMETICAL  SERIES :  Consisting  of  a  Primary, 
Elementary,  Practical,  Higher,  and  Mental  Arithmetic. 

Benj.  Wilcox,  A.  M.,  Princ.  Eiver  Falls  Acad.,  "Wis.:  "I  have  taught  in  semi* 
naries  in  this  State  and  hi  New  York  for  more  than  twenty  years,  and  am  familiar  with 
most  of  the  works  that  have  been  issued  by  different  authors  within  that  period ;  and  I 
consider  Quackenbos's  Text-Books  the  most  unexceptional  hi  then-  respective  depart- 
ments."— C.  B.  Tillinghast,  Princ.  of  Academy,  Moosop,  Conn.:  "I  think  Quack- 
enbos's  books  the  nearest  perfection  of  any  I  have  examined  on  the  various  subjects 
of  which  they  treat" 

Pres.  Savag-e,  Female  College,  Millersburg,  Ky. :  "  Mr.  Q.  certainly  possesses  rare 
qualifications  as  an  author  of  school-books.  His  United  States  History  has  no  equal, 
and  his  Ehetoric  is  really  indispensable.""— David  Y.  Shan't),  Pres.  Teachers1  Inst, 
Fogelsville,  Pa. :  "  I  approve  of  all  the  Text-Books  written  by  Mr.  Quackenbos."— Eev. 
Dr.  Winslow,  K  T.,  Author  of  "Intellectual  Pkilosophy:"  "All  the  works  of  this 
excellent  author  are  characterized  by  clearness,  accuracy,  thoroughness,  and  complete- 
ness; also  by  a  gradual  and  continuous  development  of  ulterior  results  from  their  pre- 
viously taught  elements." 

Eev.  Dr.  Rivers,  Pres.  Wesleyan  University:  "I  cordially  approve  of  all  the  Text- 
Books  edited  by  G.  P.  Quackenbos."— W.  B.  McCrate,  Princ.  Acad.,  E.  SuUivan, 
Me. :  "  Quackenbos's  books  need  only  to  be  known  to  be  used  in  all  the  schools  in  the 
State.  Wherever  they  are  introduced,  they  are  universally  UkecC'—JsiS.  B.  Rue, 
County  Supt.  of  Schools,  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa:  "Any  thing  that  has  Quackenbcm'i 
name  is  sufficient  guarantee*  with  me."— Methodist  Quarterly  Review,  Jan. 
1860:  "Every  thing  we  have  noticed  from  Mr.  Quackenbos  shows  that  the  making  of 
bookb  of  this  class  is  his  proper  vocation." 


Single  copies  of  the  above  Standard  works  will  be  mailed,  post-paid,  for 
examination,  on  receipt  of  one-half  the  retail  prices.  Liberal  terms  made 
for  introduction.  Address 

D.  APPLETON  &  CO.,  Publishers, 

649  &  551  Broadway,  New  York. 


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